Immigration and the adaptation of immigrants in destination countries remain significant topics of discussion in Europe (e.g., Dimitrova et al., 2017; Schnell et al., 2015). Education is a critical avenue for integration, enhancing opportunities for success in modern societies (Suárez-Orozco et al., 2018). Accordingly, the educational achievements of immigrant children have become a focal point for researchers and policymakers alike.

Research consistently highlights that immigrant students often underperform compared to their native peers (Marks, 2005; Schnepf, 2007; Miyamoto et al., 2020). Distinctions between first-generation and second-generation migrants are well-documented, with the latter generally achieving better academic outcomes (Dustmann et al., 2012; Karakus et al., 2023). However, these patterns are not uniform, as the size of the native-immigrant achievement gap varies considerably across countries (Resh & Blass, 2019; Schnepf, 2007).

Interestingly, many immigrant students exhibit higher levels of academic motivation and aspirations compared to their native peers, leading to the well-documented “attitude-achievement paradox” (Seo et al., 2019). Despite their heightened aspirations, this does not consistently translate into better academic performance, raising questions about the factors influencing this discrepancy (D’hondt et al., 2015).

While much of the research on immigrant educational outcomes has focused on Western European countries with established immigrant populations (e.g., the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands), studies on the Balkan region and Eastern Europe remain scarce. This gap in the literature may reflect historical migration patterns, as many Eastern European countries have traditionally been sources of emigration rather than destinations for immigrants. However, recently situation has changed and immigration to the Balkans has increased.  Therefore, the Balkans and Eastern Europe may face challenges in adapting to the influx of immigrants, including the adaptation of immigrant children in schools. From this perspective, it is important to assess how school systems in these countries deal with immigrant pupils in recent years to develop possible practices to enhance immigrant adaptation.

This research aims to examine the native-immigrant achievement gap in the Balkans in comparison to countries with a long history of immigration. Using PISA 2022 data, we explore gaps in academic achievement and well-being, identify latent profiles of students based on achievement and well-being indicators, and assess the extent to which immigrant students are represented in different profiles. By doing so, this study seeks to inform educational practices that promote both academic success and well-being for immigrant and native students alike.

The study examines the math and reading performance of students in the 2022 PISA dataset, focusing on the native-immigrant achievement gap in selected Balkan countries (Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, and Greece) and Western European countries with established immigrant populations (Great Britain, Austria, France, and Italy). Selection criteria included Balkan and Western European countries where immigrant students constituted at least 5% of the PISA sample, with sample sizes ranging from 6,135 (Croatia) to 10,552 (Italy). The proportion of immigrant students varied from 6% in Montenegro to 26% in Austria. Notably, second-generation immigrants (students born in the host country with immigrant parents) outnumbered first-generation immigrants across all countries. Analysis proceeded in two steps: 1. Descriptive and Regression Analysis: We compared the math and reading performance of native, first-generation, and second-generation immigrant students, highlighting differences across countries. 2. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA): Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) is a statistical technique used to identify unobserved (latent) subgroups within a population based on continuous observed variables. It is a type of person-centered analysis that groups individuals into profiles or classes with similar characteristics. In LPA assigns individuals to classes probabilistically. Each individual has a probability of belonging to each latent profile. Math and reading scores, along with two well-being indices (“Sense of Belonging” indicating students' attitudes toward schools and “Feeling Safe” indicating students' perceptions of safety in classrooms and schools), were used to identify latent profiles of students for each selected country separately. LPA models were evaluated using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) and classification uncertainty to select the best-fitting model. Profiles were characterized, and the proportions of each latent profiles within immigrant and native students were calculated. This approach allow us to estimate if the achievement and well-being patterns were different for native and immigrant student in different countries. At the last step, we aim to inspect individual and school-level variables associated with greater probability to be in the latent profile with academically successful pupils with high value of well-being.

The descriptive results revealed significant variability in the native-immigrant achievement gap across countries. A comparison between Balkan and Western European countries highlighted Serbia, Montenegro, and Croatia as distinct cases. These countries exhibited minimal or no achievement gaps between native and immigrant students and no differences between second- and first-generation immigrants. The unique patterns observed in these Balkan countries can be attributed to specific characteristics of their immigrant populations. First, the socioeconomic and occupational status differences between native and immigrant students were smaller compared to other countries, where native students held substantial socioeconomic advantages. Second, the proportion of first-generation immigrant students speaking a language different from the host country's language was significantly lower in Serbia (30%), Montenegro (37%), and Croatia (25%) compared to other countries. Latent Profile Analysis identified nine student profiles based on achievement and well-being indices. One of the most prevalent profiles included students with moderate or high performance and well-being ("successful and well-adapted"). However, immigrant students were underrepresented in this profile in most countries, including Serbia, where 29% of native students but only 19% of first-generation immigrants were classified as "successful and well-adapted." Conversely, the profile of academically disadvantaged and poorly adapted students was more prevalent among immigrants than natives in most countries, though less so in the Balkans. For instance, in Austria, this profile accounted for 37% of first-generation immigrants compared to 23% of natives, while in Serbia, the proportions were equal for both groups. Notably, Serbia had a distinct profile of high-performing but poorly adapted immigrant students, with a lower sense of belonging and safety. In summary, while Serbia, Montenegro, and Croatia show relatively favorable outcomes for immigrant achievement, challenges remain in promoting immigrant students’ holistic well-being and adaptation.

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