Migrant students often face unique academic challenges due to language barriers, socio-economic disparities, and cultural adaptation processes (Motti-Stefanidi et al. 2015). These challenges can contribute to lower academic achievement, particularly in mathematics, where comprehension and instructional language play a crucial role. Parental and teacher support play a crucial role in migrant students' academic success and well-being (Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009). Research suggests that migrant students often receive less parental support in school-related activities due to cultural and linguistic barriers (Antony-Newman, 2018). However, parental involvement, when present, significantly enhances student engagement, self-efficacy, and resilience (Castro et al., 2015). Despite structural challenges, interventions that bridge communication gaps and provide culturally responsive support can help mitigate these barriers and enhance student outcomes.

Teacher support has also been found to be a critical factor in migrant students' educational success. Teacher-student relationships characterized by warmth, encouragement, and emotional support foster student engagement and academic persistence (Armenta et al., 2011; Brittian et al., 2013). Research highlights that migrant students benefit more from strong teacher support than their native peers, as teachers often become a primary source of educational guidance in the absence of strong parental engagement (Liu, 2024; Roorda et al., 2011). Teacher support has been associated with higher perceived competence, increased interest in subjects, and greater adherence to classroom rules (Duchesne & Larose, 2007). However, studies indicate that teacher biases and lower expectations for migrant students can hinder the effectiveness of such support, making culturally responsive teaching crucial (Nortvedt et al., 2020).

The PISA 2022 results indicate that students receiving higher levels of teacher support report greater attentiveness in class, increased effort in solving tasks, and a stronger enjoyment of learning (OECD, 2024). However, the effectiveness of teacher support may vary across socio-cultural and educational contexts (Wentzel et al., 2015). Migrant students in systems with inclusive educational policies tend to benefit more from teacher support compared to those in countries with weaker integration frameworks.

According to the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), educational policies supporting migrant students vary across countries. Therefore, this study examines these aspects among migrant-background and native students in Slovenia within the PISA 2022 sample and presents a comparative analysis of Slovenian data alongside data from Germany and Sweden. Sweden ranks highest in education policy support for migrants, ensuring equal access to education, specialized language programs, and culturally inclusive curricula (Migration policy group, 2024a). Germany’s policies are moderately supportive, incorporating language assistance and integration initiatives but lacking comprehensive measures across all educational levels (Migration policy group, 2024b). Slovenia ranks lower, offering only basic access to compulsory education with minimal additional support for migrant students (Migration policy group, 2024c). These differences in policy frameworks may influence how well migrant students benefit from family and teacher support in different countries.

Given these theoretical foundations and policy variations, this study investigates how family support and teacher support influence mathematics achievement among first-generation migrants, second-generation migrants, and native students in selected countries. It further examines whether these effects differ across the three educational systems, particularly given the opposing migrant integration policies, and whether teacher and family support have a stronger impact on migrant students compared to their native peers. By examining these relationships, this study contributes to understanding how different forms of support interact with educational policies to shape migrant student outcomes. The findings have implications for policymakers and educators aiming to enhance migrant student inclusion and academic success.

Participants: This study examines three representative samples of native and migrant students from Slovenia (Nfirst-generation = 378; Nsecond-generation = 252; Nnative = 5.866), Germany (Nfirst-generation = 474; Nsecond-generation = 903; Nnative = 4.030) and Sweden (Nfirst-generation = 596; Nsecond-generation = 615; Nnative = 4.532) participating in the 2022 PISA. The study specifically focuses on a sample of 15-year-old students. Instruments and included variables: The students were categorized based on their immigrant background, with first-generation immigrant students defined as foreign-born students with foreign-born parents, and second-generation immigrant students as those born in the destination country with foreign-born parents. In order to calculate mathematics achievement PISA employed the plausible values (PVs) imputation technique, incorporating ten PVs per student in the international database. Family support was assessed through an index based on questions about parental engagement (e.g., “Discuss how well you are doing at school”, “Spend time just talking with you”). Higher index values indicated greater family support. Similarly, teacher support was measured using an index reflecting students’ perceptions of their mathematics teachers’ behaviours (e.g., “The teacher shows an interest in every student’s learning.”, “The teacher gives extra help when students need it.”). Higher values indicated stronger teacher support. Sampling and procedure: A two-stage stratified sampling design was employed to ensure the study’s representativeness. In the first stage, schools with 15-year-old students were selected from a comprehensive pool of educational institutions in Slovenia, Germany, and Sweden. In the second stage, up to 42 students were randomly sampled from each selected school. If a school had fewer than 42 eligible students, all were included. This ensured a representative sample. Students spent about 35 minutes on the background questionnaire and 2 hours on achievement tests. Statistical analyses: Firstly, descriptive statistics were calculated and then correlations were employed to examine multicollinearity. Secondly, differences in mathematic achievements among student groups in each country were computed. Finally, linear regression was utilized to identify the factors (immigrant status, family support, teacher support, interaction between family support and immigrant status and interaction between teacher support and immigrant status) predicting the mathematic achievement within each student group in each country. The data were analysed using the SPSS 30 and IEA IDB Analyzer (Version 5.0) statistical program, which chosen because of the two-stage sampling in the study, which incorporates IRT, individual student and sample weights.

The findings reveal that migrant students consistently perform worse in mathematics than their native peers across all three countries. Slovenia exhibited the most noticeable negative impact of immigrant status on math achievement, suggesting that migrant students in Slovenia face greater structural barriers compared to Germany and Sweden. The weak or negative effect of family support on math achievement further suggests that parental involvement alone may not be sufficient to improve academic outcomes, potentially reflecting compensatory efforts by families facing greater challenges. A key takeaway is the strong positive effect of teacher support on math achievement in Sweden, reinforcing the importance of inclusive and well-structured teacher-student relationships in fostering academic success. However, teacher support did not significantly impact student achievement in Slovenia or Germany, suggesting that teacher interventions may be less effective or inconsistently implemented in these countries. Additionally, migrant students in Sweden benefited less from teacher support compared to native students, indicating potential cultural or language barriers that may limit the effectiveness of teacher interventions. These results underscore the critical role of national education policies in shaping student outcomes. Sweden’s strong migrant-inclusive policies likely contribute to the observed benefits of teacher support, whereas Slovenia’s limited integration measures may worsen educational inequalities for migrant students. Given these findings, policymakers should prioritize targeted interventions, such as teacher training programs, culturally responsive teaching methods, and expanded academic support systems for migrant students, to bridge the achievement gap and promote equal educational opportunities across different student populations.

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