Globally, the prevalence of mental health disorders has been increasing (Winding et al., 2020), with depression being one of the most common conditions. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4.4% of the global population—approximately 322 million people—experience depression (WHO, 2017). While childhood depression frequently remains underrecognized (Fuhrmann et al., 2013), studies suggest that about 2% of pre-school-aged children, 2.8% of school-aged children, and between 5.6% to 11% of adolescents may experience significant depressive symptoms (Costello et al., 2006; Angold, 2006; Finsaas et al., 2018; Mojtabai et al., 2016; Polanczyk et al., 2015; Wichstrøm et al., 2012). Since these numbers are relatively high, it is necessary to explore depression in young populations, specifically resilience in the form of risk and protective factors.

In Europe, mental health issues among children and adolescents have gained increasing attention, as studies indicate a rising prevalence of depression and anxiety in this demographic (Bor et al., 2014; Ravens-Sieberer et al., 2021). Socioeconomic disparities, migration background, and family environment are particularly relevant in the European context, where social policies and healthcare systems vary widely across countries and influence mental health outcomes (Viner et al., 2012; Reiss, 2013). Moreover, gender differences and experiences of victimization—such as bullying and social exclusion—have been identified as significant factors shaping the mental health trajectories of young individuals in European societies (Inchley et al., 2020).

This study investigates the risk factors associated with depressive tendencies in children and adolescents in Austria, with a focus on socioeconomic status (SES), migration background, gender, perceived family functionality, and experiences of victimization. By examining these factors within a European framework, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of childhood and adolescent depression in Austria and provide insights that may inform future mental health policies and interventions across Europe.

Data was collected between November 2023 and June 2024 in Austrian primary and secondary schools (grades three to seven). Schools were contacted via phone and email, and parental consent forms were distributed. The survey was conducted in classrooms over one school hour. The final sample included 923 students aged 9-14 from primary and secondary schools, with a mean age of 11 years (SD=1.58). Data was collected using standardized instruments and scores (DTK-II, OBVQ, ASF-E, HISEI) alongside socio-demographic data provided by students and their caregivers. The Depression Test for Children II (DTK-II) is an assessment tool developed by Rossmann (2014) to measure current depressive states in children and adolescents. It is primarily based on self-assessments while also allowing for external evaluations. This revised and newly standardized version is used in diagnostics and empirical research. The target group consists of children and adolescents aged nine to fourteen, corresponding to grades three to seven, making it applicable from primary to secondary school levels. The DTK-II is available in both a long and short version, with the long form comprising 55 dichotomous items (“Yes” or “No”). Completion time varies by age, approximately 10 to 15 minutes. The Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (OBVQ) is a validated instrument for assessing bullying prevalence and victimization. It captures both the experiences of victims and the self-reported bullying behavior of perpetrators. Originally developed in 1983, the instrument has been revised multiple times (Solberg & Olweus, 2003). This study uses the version by Gaete et al. (2021), which includes 10 items per subscale. Only the victimization subscale was utilized and translated into German. The HISEI measures SES based on parental education and occupation. Using the International Socio-Economic Index (ISEI), occupations are scored according to required education and average earnings (Ganzeboom, 2010). The highest parental ISEI score defines the household’s SES. The ASF-E assesses family functionality and well-being, derived from systemic organization theory (Friedemann, 2024). It is used in psychological interventions to analyze family resources. The German version used in this study consists of 18 items, where participants choose statements reflecting their family reality. Correlation and Multilevel Regression analysis were carried out to estimate mentioned predictors and their possible relationship with depression tendencies.

The present study underscores the complexity of depression in childhood and adolescence. Victimization emerged as the most significant predictor of depressive tendencies (p<.001)., with its effects being particularly pronounced among female students (p<.001). These findings align with previous research, emphasizing the heightened vulnerability of girls to depression when exposed to peer victimization (Van der Wal, 2003). Students from lower-SES backgrounds were more frequently victimized than those from higher-SES backgrounds (p<.05). While socioeconomic status correlated with both victimization and depression, its role as a direct predictor remains unclear. Future studies should examine potential mediators such as school environment, parental stress, and social support networks. Migration background was strongly correlated with depression scores (p<.001), particularly when the mother had a migration background (p<.05). Suggesting that maternal support structures and cultural integration processes may significantly shape a child’s mental health outcomes. Additionally, family functionality was confirmed as a protective factor against depressive tendencies (p<.05), reinforcing the importance of family-based interventions. Regression analyses confirmed victimization, parental marital status, and family functionality as significant predictors of depressive tendencies (p<.001). In summary, this study highlights the need for targeted interventions addressing bullying prevention, gender-sensitive mental health support, and family-based counseling. Schools should implement structured anti-bullying programs and provide accessible psychological support to students experiencing victimization. Furthermore, policies should focus on strengthening family support systems, particularly for children from migrant and lower-SES backgrounds. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs to better understand causality and the long-term effects of victimization and family dynamics on youth depression

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