Effective teachers can significantly influence student achievement (Hayes et al., 2020), especially for marginalized groups like Roma children, Europe's largest ethnic minority facing educational barriers (FRA, 2023). Student engagement, linked to achievement (Roorda et al., 2017; Wong et al., 2024), well-being (Wong et al., 2024), and dropout prevention (Fall & Roberts, 2012), is vital for disadvantaged students. However, engagement is often lower for students from marginalized groups (Tomaszewski, Xiang, & Western, 2020, as cited in Riddle et al., 2024).

An FRA survey (2023) across 10 EU countries, Serbia, and North Macedonia highlights slow progress in education, healthcare, employment, and housing access, with Roma children especially vulnerable. Many children live in poverty, face overcrowded housing, have low early education attendance, and leave school early. One in five experienced hate-motivated bullying, and segregation is increasing. In Serbia, Roma children face low preschool enrollment (7%), basic education completion (64%), and high school transition (55% of basic school graduates) (Statistical Office of Serbia & UNICEF, 2019). Given teachers' key role in engagement (Fredricks et al., 2004) and support for disadvantaged students, this study examines how teacher practices support Roma student engagement in Serbia. The Self-System Model of Motivational Development (SSMMD, Connell & Wellborn, 1991) provides a theoretical framework for understanding teacher influence on student engagement.

SSMMD (Connell & Wellborn, 1991), based on the Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2020), identifies competence, autonomy, and relatedness as key psychological needs for motivation. The model includes social context, self-system processes, action (engagement/disaffection), and outcomes (learning and development). Teachers support needs through providing structure, autonomy support, and involvement. Perceived competence reflects learning confidence, autonomy relates to self-regulation, and relatedness depends on emotional bonds with teachers and peers (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner et al., 2009). When students perceive their needs as satisfied, they engage in learning. Teachers enhance engagement by designing meaningful, challenging activities, fostering bonds, setting clear expectations, and offering choice and support. Engagement is also influenced by peers, school, family, and community (Connell & Wellborn, 1991).

Connell & Wellborn (1991) describe engagement through cognition (problem-solving and coping), behavior (participation and attendance), and emotion (curiosity and security). Later, Skinner et al. (2008) propose a four-dimensional model: emotional engagement (enthusiasm, interest), behavioral engagement (effort, persistence), emotional disaffection (boredom, anxiety), and behavioral disaffection (withdrawal, passivity). However, in their literature review, Wong and Liem (2022) summarize different approaches to student engagement and propose a Dual Component Framework. This framework distinguishes between learning engagement and school engagement as unique but interconnected constructs. By doing so, they aim to avoid overgeneralization and ambiguity frequently present in discussions about student engagement. While school engagement refers to students’ connection with the school community, learning engagement is a “psychological state of activity” (Wong & Liem, 2022, p. 120) with three dimensions: affective (alertness or enjoyment of a task), behavioral (intentional effort), and cognitive (task absorption). Wong and Liem (2022) categorize SSMMD as an approach to learning engagement and this study adopts this understanding.

Studies on the engagement of disadvantaged students, particularly Roma students in Serbia, are scarce. To address this gap, this study explores the learning engagement of Roma students in two elementary schools in Serbia. However, it does not examine causal relationships due to its qualitative nature. Instead, the study focuses on students' reports of how teachers meet their needs, as students can best discuss their perceptions, and class observations to provide insight into teacher practices, addressing the following research questions:

1. How do Roma students perceive their needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy in the classroom?

2. What practices (involvement, structure, autonomy support) do teachers use to meet students’ needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy?

This qualitative study employs a multiple case study design examining two elementary schools in Serbia and two in the Czech Republic. Data from Serbian schools were collected in Belgrade (Oct-Dec 2023) from Sunflower Elementary (99% Roma) and Daisy Elementary (15-20% Roma) (all names changed for anonymity). The sample was purposive, targeting schools with a high percentage of Roma students. The response rate was low, and the final sample included two schools committed to full participation. Stake (2006) suggests selecting cases where more time can be spent and learning opportunities are greater, guiding both school selection and data collection. Originally, two embedded cases per school focused on third or fourth-grade classes through observations and interviews with teachers, Roma students, and families. At Sunflower, low attendance and limited parental engagement hindered data collection. Three fourth-grade Roma students were interviewed, and three classes (Math, Serbian, and Art) were observed. In third-grade classes were observed, but parental consent for interviews was not obtained. To compensate for this, a first-grade class was observed, as one first-grade student was interviewed with parental consent. However, only one class (World Around Us) was observed, taught by two teachers and attended by the school principal, potentially influencing teacher practices. At Daisy Elementary, two fourth-grade classes were observed—Sofija’s (Math, Serbian, Homeland) and Nikolina’s (Math, Serbian). Three out of seven Roma students were interviewed with parental consent. In addition, all class teachers (6) from Sunflower Elementary and 5 class teachers (out of 18) from Daisy Elementary were interviewed, along with Roma family members (3 in Sunflower and 7 in Daisy Elementary), pedagogical assistants (one in each school) and school pedagogue and/or psychologist. Interviews with students and teachers, and observations provide insights into teacher practices affecting Roma student engagement. Family and school personnel interviews further illuminate school climate and teacher-family relationships. This paper presents findings from student interviews and classroom observations to explore how students perceive the satisfaction of their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and the practices teachers use to support these needs. Interviews were held individually or in groups and lasted 15-35 minutes, with semi-structured questions addressing the emotional, peer and support to learning, opportunities for choice-making and respecting students’ interests and needs, and attitudes toward learning and education. Observations recorded teacher practices supporting basic psychological needs as defined by SSMMD: involvement, autonomy support, and structure. In addition, both observations and student interviews offer insight into student learning engagement.

Students' perceptions of relatedness, competence, and autonomy varied across classrooms. At Daisy Elementary, Sofija's students felt connected to her, while Nikolina's to his peers. One of Sofija's students felt rejected by peers despite her efforts to help. Competence perceptions were mixed; Sofija's students valued high expectations and support, while Nikolina's student took personal responsibility but was dissatisfied with his grades. Autonomy was limited despite students enjoying school. Observations showed warm, respectful teacher involvement. Structure varied—Sofija engaged students through discussions, monitored progress, and supported struggling students, though engagement dropped during repetitive discussions. Nikolina struggled with monitoring and targeted support, lowering Roma students' engagement in individualized tasks. At Sunflower Elementary, students described teachers as good because they did not yell. Fourth graders noted the teacher cared about learning but did little to address peer behavior issues, making the school feel less secure. They felt competent but found tasks repetitive as classmates struggled, with teacher expectations below grade level. They wanted discussions with their teacher but lacked opportunities, limiting autonomy. The first grader felt connected to peers and the teacher, describing her as nice and helpful, felt competent, but struggled with letters and basic calculations. Fourth-grade classes lacked structure. Some students struggled due to insufficient support, while others finished quickly and remained idle. Insufficient challenges limited engagement for some students. Teacher involvement was inconsistent: she showed care but made disrespectful comments. First-grade teachers showed affection, adapted activities, provided clear instructions and feedback, and encouraged peer support. Overall, students engaged more with clear instructions, support, and clear expectations and relatedness increased home engagement. Engagement varied by teacher rather than school. Autonomy support was limited, though some teachers included student-interest activities. Many students participated, but some lacked challenges, aligning with findings that teachers often prioritize attendance and participation over meaningful learning (Riddle et al., 2024).

Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development (pp. 43–77). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Fall, A., & Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between social context, self‐perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 787–798. FRA. (2023). Roma in 10 European countries: Main results. Publications Office of the European Union. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. Hayes, D., Mills, M., Christie, P., & Lingard, B. (2020). Teachers & Schooling Making A Difference: Productive Pedagogies, Assessment and Performance (1st ed.). Routledge. Riddle, S., Howell, A., McGregor, G., & Mills, M. (2024). Student engagement in schools serving marginalised communities. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 28(6), 723–738. Roorda, D. L., Jak, S., Zee, M., Oort, F. J., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2017). Affective Teacher–Student Relationships and Students’ Engagement and Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Update and Test of the Mediating Role of Engagement. School Psychology Review, 46(3), 239–261. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (2009). Engagement and disaffection as organizational constructs in the dynamics of motivational development. In K. R. Wenzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 223–245). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. Stake, R. E. (2006b). Multiple case study analysis. Guilford Press. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, & UNICEF. (2019). Serbia Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey and Serbia Roma Settlements Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, 2019, Survey Findings Report. Wong, Z. Y., & Liem, G. A. D. (2022). Student Engagement: Current State of the Construct, Conceptual Refinement, and Future Research Directions. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 107–138. Wong, Z. Y., Liem, G. A. D., Chan, M., & Datu, J. A. D. (2024). Student engagement and its association with academic achievement and subjective well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 116(1), 48–75.