As noted in the literature, the concept of ´competence´, it´s conformity with and analytical applicability to contents, processes, methods and tools used in work, is a challenge. Beyond performances related to accomplishment of certain activities and tasks, concepts such as ´core competencies´ (collective organizational recourses for gaining competitive advantage) and ´key competencies´ (individual resources for surviving on the labour market and society at large) contributes to the elusiveness of ´competences´. Comprehension of competence as “knowledge, skills and attitudes” shift largely in denotation, dependent on the tradition, context and situation at hand. Further it´s incident to functioning and performing within a certain vocation and profession. Likewise, general (personal) abilities and capabilities needed for developing or renewing, or responding successfully to the changing conditions for accomplishing activities and tasks included in work (Biemans, Nieuwenhus, Poell, Mulder & Wesselink 2004; Guthrie 2009; Hsieh, Lin & Lee, 2012).  

 As competence is a dynamic, multidimensional and ambiguous, culture and context-dependent phenomenon it is appropriate to conceptualize it from a holistic perspective, and attend to it as a continuum, consisting of overlapping dimensions and qualities. To be related to with different complementary approaches. On the basis of overviews on the concept and phenomenon of competence (e.g. Blömeke, Gustafsson & Shavelson 2015; Cowan, Norman & Coopamah 2005; Le Deist & Winterton 2005; Mulder, Weigel & Collins, 2006; Ploum, Blok, Lans, & Omta 2018) three complementary approaches are identified: a behavioural-functionalistic approach, a generic approach and a humanistic-professional approach. 

The overall research question is: what does competence consist of and include, when studied in relation to competence-based training and education (CBET). The question is anchored in the recent reform of upper secondary vocational education in Finland. Vocational education and training (VET) in Finland has a long tradition of being school-based. From late 1990´s onwards reforms have successively dissolved the institutional VET-practices, by incorporating on-the-job learning periods and developing vocational skills demonstrations in authentic work tasks as a practice of assessing vocational competencies. Curriculum reform 2015 further strengthened an outcomes-based approach to VET (Nissilä, Karjalainen, Koukkari & Kepanen, 2015; Stenström & Virolainen 2016). A major legislative reform 2018, alongside with new criteria for financing VET, converted the school-based VET into CBET, resembling the ones in use in European countries and Australia. On a policy level the ambition is to consolidate a demand-driven, customer-oriented and competence-based VET. Students will be offered individual and flexible path to reach the competencies, as defined and described in the Basics for qualifications (BFQ), somewhat comparable with training packagesin Australia (Brennan-Kemmis 2008), référentielsin France (Hebrard 2013) lernfelderin Germany (Fischer & Bauer 2007). 

Basics for qualificationsare compiled by tripartite expert groups with representation from labour markets organisation (employers and trade unions) and vocational education (teachers). They are nationally valid documents for conforming the learning outcomes and assessment criteria for the competences central to the profession and occupation at hand. The competencies relevant to an occupation ought to be delimited, defined, formulated and communicated with validity and reliability in the BFQ;ns. In such manner that the competencies are understood alike by career officers, teachers, students and supervisors at workplaces. Validation of prior learning and decisions on individual paths are based on learning outcomes and assessment criteria confirmed in the BFQs. They ought to establish and communicate the central competencies within the occupation at hand. The overall research question can thus be delimited: what does competence consist of and include, when studied in the light of the Basics for qualifications, as formulated in the establishment of CBET in Finland?    

The aim of this paper is to open for a systematic conceptualization of competence and identify forms of expression for competences. Three complementary frameworks are used in an abductive manner, besides the three approaches mentioned above, a systematisation of tasks (Fischer & Bauer 2007) and criteria for analysing competence statements (Hebrard 2013). A small selection of Finnish BFQ:s will be used as empirical examples of defining, describing and communicating competences. Within behavioural-functionalistic approach competence relates to individuals PERFORMING integrated unit of tasks in an authentic working environment. The underlying assumption is that the tasks can be defined and described in detail (as learning outcomes) to be assessed according to distinct, unequivocal and transparent standards and criteria. Within generic approach competence appears independent of a specific organizational context or situation. It relates to the underlying attributes of individuals, is expressed in ACTING on abilities and capabilities, in relation tasks and work processes (take initiative, solve problems, make decisions, observe-plan-interpret-evaluate-develop) and the social interaction inherent to work (communication, relation making, embracing diversity, managing conflicts). Within humanistic-professional approach competence builds on a complex unity of personal-individual traits and potentials. It is expressed in BEING, in which beliefs, values and ethics coincide with cognitive abilities. Self-awareness, -reflection and –confidence, alongside with individual orientations regarding motivation, responsibility and flexibility is included in this approach. Fischer and Bauer (2007) divide tasks to be accomplished in four different areas; tasks as introduction to the occupation, systematic tasks, problem-based special tasks and unpredictable work-based problems. These are related to respective forms of knowledge; orientation-overview, coherent, detail-functional and special-advanced knowledge. Further they identify four types of problem-solving: guided deterministic performance, systematic rule-based, theory guided and experience-based problem-solving. Hebrard (2013) identifies four contrasting criteria for analysing competence statements within health care and social work. The first focuses on the dividing of activities into tasks and operations, the second the distinction between performance and activities. Third criteria interests in observable behaviours versus conceptual-procedural knowledge. The last criteria consider relational dimensions of competence contrasted with communication techniques.

Analysis of BFQs show differences between professional areas regarding descriptions of learnings outcomes and assessment criteria. In Information and telecommunication technology learning outcomes are detailed, emphasizing basic knowledge, skills in choosing and using tools, instruments and material, documenting and reporting, and evaluating the quality of work. Assessment criteria are general. Satisfactory performances rely on instructions and guidance. Good performances are related to varying situations and contexts, rely on systematic mastery of processes and self-initiated assessments and adjustments. Excellent performances are autonomous problem-solving, developmental, effective and of excellent quality. Competence equals with performing tasks, to minor extent with acting. Focus is on operations and behaviours. Knowledge is detailed-functional, problem-solving guided deterministic and systematic rule-based. In Business learning outcomes are short and general (preparing for customer service, serving customers, promoting positive experiences). Assessment criteria are detailed; on satisfactory level acquiring information, understanding models/concepts for service and ones’ tasks in relation to these. Good performances relate these to varying context, in regard with competitors and different of customers. Performance assessment is included. Excellent performances widen the contextual aspect, includes self-support and analytical capability, used for well-grounded and anticipating initiatives for development. Competence equals with performing and acting, focus is on tasks and activities. Conceptual-procedural, coherent and orientation knowledge accords with relational dimensions. Problem-solving is theory-guided. In Social and health care learning outcomes are comprehensive; including planning-acting-evaluating complex tasks, one’s own performances, interaction with clients and colleagues, promoting and providing health and human development, evaluating and securing one’s own capacity to work, relative to regulations, established practices and ethical principles. Difference between assessment criteria for satisfactory, good and excellent performances are insignificant, focusing on versatile accomplishment and ability to justify ones’ performances. Competence equals with performing, acting and being, focusing besides tasks and activities versatile relational dimensions. Problem-solving is theory-guided and experience-based.

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