This study investigates the implementation of dual education in Serbia under the dual education legislation (Law on Dual Education, 2017; bylaws, 2018–2019), aiming to assess its efficacy and identify areas requiring enhancement. Employing a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from multiple stakeholders (430 participants across 50 schools in 19 localities) in 2021 to comprehensively evaluate the programme's current state.
This study evaluates the overall context of dual education in Serbia, encompassing four key areas: (1) implementation of dual education at the system level; (2) fulfilment of prerequisites for successful dual education; (3) processes and characteristics of work-based learning (WBL) within dual educational profiles at the school and company levels; and (4) achievement of educational outcomes in dual education and dual profiles.
The study addresses a critical gap in Serbia's vocational education and training (VET) system repeatedly highlighted in European Commission Progress Reports (2018-2020) - the lack of robust quality assurance and monitoring for WBL. These recommendations, significant for Serbia's EU candidate status, underscore the urgent need for this research. Despite legislative advancements and expanded dual education/WBL models, evaluating their effectiveness and ensuring quality remain hampered by this deficiency. The 2018 report explicitly called for the development of such mechanisms, and a call was reiterated in 2019 with added urgency regarding the transition period. The 2020 report further reinforced this persistent challenge, noting outdated VET qualifications and the lack of a monitoring and feedback mechanism hindering the introduction of the national WBL VET model.
The study directly responds to the EU recommendations, using a robust monitoring and evaluation framework for dual education created by the Centre for Education Policy to provide a much-needed evaluation that informs the further development of dual education in Serbia. By examining the experiences of students, schools, and businesses, the research offers valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners seeking to strengthen the dual education system and ensure its effectiveness in preparing students for the workforce.
Given the complex phenomenon under evaluation, several complementary theoretical frameworks were employed: (a) Implementation theory, (b) Social learning theory, (c) Stakeholder theory, and (d) Human capital theory. High-quality implementation of educational approaches can significantly impact student outcomes. Implementation is generally defined as a set of planned and intentional activities designed to integrate evidence-based practices into real-world settings (Mitchell, 2011). Social learning theory emphasises learning through observation, imitation, and modelling. It can be applied to understand student learning in work-based environments and how interactions among students, instructors, and company mentors influence their development (Bandura, 1986). Stakeholder theory stresses the importance of considering the interests of all involved parties, such as students, parents, educators, schools, businesses, and policymakers in dual education. This framework helps understand diverse implementation perspectives, identifies potential conflicts, and emphasises collaboration and communication for shared goals (Mitchell, 1997). Human capital theory emphasises the importance of education and training in developing individuals' skills and knowledge, contributing to economic growth (Becker, 1964).
Despite a positive perception of dual education, significant implementation gaps hinder its potential. While formal requirements are met, the practical application needs development. Student placement, though criteria-based, shows inequities, particularly for those with individualised learning plans. Enhanced coordination between company instructors and WBL coordinators assessment and more rigorous planning and assessment is needed. Inconsistent student support raises equity concerns. Varied student experiences highlight the need for standardised protocols. A stronger link between classroom learning and practical application, i.e. work-based learning, is essential. Cross-curricular competency development requires further investigation, as research findings suggest it is not occurring. Support mechanisms lack structure, and school-business partnerships vary in functionality. Student satisfaction is polarised, correlating with company engagement and instructor commitment.

This study employed a mixed-methods approach to investigate the implementation of dual education in Serbia and assess its efficacy. Data were collected from a wide range of stakeholders, including schools, businesses, and students, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the program's current state. Prior to this study, the Centre for Education Policy developed and piloted a comprehensive dual education monitoring and evaluation framework (MEF) comprising a matrix and accompanying instruments. MEF was piloted with a range of stakeholders: students, parents, school staff (pedagogues, psychologists, principals, and work-based learning coordinators), company directors and instructors, and local community representatives. Conceptually, the MEF upgrades existing Serbian quality assurance mechanisms for educational institutions (external and self-evaluation) within secondary vocational education, which includes dual education. It addresses the specificities of secondary vocational schools and dual educational profiles (e.g., work-based learning, school-business cooperation, and student placement) and is based on international best practices. Specifically, the MEF for dual education complements, rather than duplicates, the existing national quality assurance framework, enhancing quality assurance within secondary vocational schools offering dual educational profiles. Quantitative data were gathered through surveys administered to students in dual education programmes, focusing on their experiences with work-based learning, perceived support from schools and companies, and overall satisfaction with the dual education programmes. The surveys also explored student perceptions of the alignment between classroom learning and practical application and the development of cross-curricular competencies. School data included information on student placement procedures, the structure and functionality of school-business partnership within career guidance and counselling teams, and the implementation of formal-legal requirements. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews and focus groups guides with key informants. These interviews explored the coordination mechanisms between schools and businesses, the planning and assessment processes for work-based learning, providing support to students, and the challenges and opportunities associated with dual education implementation. The qualitative data complemented the quantitative findings by providing richer insights into the nuances of implementation and the perspectives of different stakeholders. In addition, there was a set of checklists used for assessing the compliance of legislation with practices. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics for the quantitative data and thematic analysis for the qualitative data. The combined analysis of data sets allowed for a more holistic understanding of Serbia's dual education strengths and weaknesses.

The findings collectively highlight the need for targeted interventions to address standardised, and effective dual education experience for all students. Future research directions should prioritise the development of evidence-based strategies to enhance the development of cross-curricular competencies and improve the consistency and efficacy of support structures for all stakeholders. This study concludes that while dual education in Serbia is perceived positively overall, significant implementation challenges impede its effectiveness. A gap exists between fulfilling formal requirements and actual practice, necessitating further development of practical frameworks. Inconsistencies in student placement, particularly for those on individualised plans, raise concerns about equitable access to quality work-based learning. Crucially, enhanced coordination between schools’ work-based learning coordinators and companies’ instructors is essential, alongside more robust planning and assessment processes. Uneven provision of student support by companies and varied student experiences in work placements, highlight the need for standardised protocols and mentor training. Strengthening the link between classroom learning and practical application is vital for maximizing educational impact. Further research is needed to explore the development of cross-curricular competencies during work-based learning. Formalising support systems for students and strengthening school-business partnerships in the provision of career guidance and counselling are also crucial. Finally, the polarised student satisfaction, strongly linked to company engagement and instructors’ commitment, underscores the need for a more standardised and effective dual education experience. Future research should focus on evidence-based strategies to enhance cross-curricular competency development and create more consistent and effective support structures.

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