Current trends in the globalized environment we live in, and especially the persisting burden of the global economic crisis, require school principals to adopt a broader set of roles and tasks. In fact, principals need to create the conditions for the development of active and responsible students who will be prepared to undertake their role as future citizens. To date, no previous study attempted to explore the association between school leadership and student citizenship outcomes in quantitative terms. Although case studies provide evidence of the contribution of the principal to student active citizenship (Pashiardis et al., 2009; Scheerens, 2009; 2011) there is still a need to establish a quantitative linkage between leadership and citizenship outcomes.   

           Towards this direction, the current study seeks to explore the relationship between School Leadership and Student Citizenship Outcomes in Cyprus middle schools. Both direct and indirect relationships between School Leadership and Student Citizenship Outcomes (cognitive, affective, behavioural) were investigated. In the case of indirect leadership effects the mediating role of School Academic Optimism and Instructional Quality was examined.

         This study adopts a comprehensive perspective of leadership by utilizing the Pashiardis-Brauckmann Holistic Leadership Framework (Brauckmann & Pashiardis, 2011; Pashiardis, 2014; Pashiardis & Brauckmann, 2008). The specific framework has been developed and implemented in seven European countries (UK, Norway, Germany, Slovenia, Hungary, Italy, The Netherlands) within the context of the European funded LISA (Leadership Improvement for Student Achievement) project. According to this framework, school principals’ behavior is operationalized in terms of five leadership styles: the Instructional, Participative, Structuring, Entrepreneurial, and Personnel Development Styles.

        Furthermore, we are interested in investigating through which intermediate variables school leaders can have an effect on student citizenship outcomes. A number of variables suggested by the literature are identified at this mediating level. At the school level, a new latent construct labeled School Academic Optimism (Hoy et al., 2006; McGuigan,& Hoy, 2006) is used. School Academic Optimism represents a schoolwide belief that students will learn and it is made up of three dimensions: academic emphasis, faculty trust in students and parents, and teacher collective efficacy. At the classroom level, a comprehensive set of instructional quality indicators is utilized. The instructional quality factors emerge from the dynamic model of educational effectiveness of Creemers and Kyriakides (2008) and relate to structuring, orientation, teaching modelling, application, questioning techniques, assessment, management of time and classroom as a learning environment. These factors are measured through five dimensions: frequency, stage, focus, quality, and differentiation.

        Student citizenship outcomes (cognitive, affective, behavioural) form the dependent variable at the end of the leadership effects chain. A strong impetus to citizenship outcomes is linked to the 2000 Lisbon Objectives in education and training (Commission of the European Communities, 2006). Specifically, civic competence was identified as one of the key competences required in order to respond to globalization and the knowledge-based economies. More recently, the Council of the European Union developed a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training referred to as “Education and Training 2020” (Council of the European Union, 2009).  One of the strategic objectives set in this framework was to promote equity, social cohesion and active citizenship. Specifically, it is highlighted that education and training should promote active citizenship, democratic values and intercultural competences. Further attention to the nature and measurement of citizenship outcomes is also reflected in international studies such as the Civic Education Study (CIVED) and the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) (Torney-Purta et al., 2001; Schulz et al., 2010).

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