The Totalitarian Imagination: Religion, Politics and Education ‘The Totalitarian Imagination’ presents an outline historical-philosophical analysis of the complex inter-relationships between religion, politics and education in three critical phases of modern history: ‘Revolutionary Democracy’ (1789-1916), ‘The Totalitarian Imagination’ (1917-1945/1989- present) and ‘Liberal Autocracy’ (1945/ 1989- present). The paper’s conclusions have wide implications for education systems across Europe and internationally. The thesis presented is that: (i) Revolutionary Democracy (1789-1916) Eighteenth century philosophical and political revolutions increased democratic participation in Europe and America, and were characterised by formal, constitutional separation of Church and State. Subsequent nineteenth century manifestations of modernity included increased skepticism religion and secularization, with expectations that religion would eventually disappear or be reduced to the margins of public and political life (Burleigh, 2006; Himmelfarb, 2004). Here, mass politics would require a mass and secular education (Dewey, 1916; Gearon, 2008). (ii) The Totalitarian Imagination (1917-1945/ 1989) It is contested, following Talmon (1952) that eighteenth century revolutionary democracy and increased nineteenth century secularism paved the way for subsequent totalitarian experiments in the twentieth century. Opportunities afforded by increasingly secular, often militantly atheistic systems, formed the ideological ground of private and public life, including education, and subsumed in the twentieth century by the diversely manifest nomenclature of totalitarianism (Arendt, 2004; Arieli and Rotenstreich, 2002; Burleigh, 2004; Friedrich, and Brzezinski, 1967; Heller, 2008). (iii) ‘Liberal Autocracy’ (1945/ 1989- present) Though Soviet totalitarianism persisted and the end of the Second World War saw the mergence of the Cold War, it is contested that, following the defeat of Nazism the 1945 formation of the United Nations was an attempt to present a universal model of liberal polity underpinned by a liberal political education around citizenship, democracy and human rights, following the eighteenth century European model. Despite the persistence of Chinese Communist rule, the post-1989 ‘end of the Cold War’ afforded many western theorists to postulate not simply the success of liberal democracy but its supremacy, Fukuyama’s (2006) ‘end of history’. Other theorists, notably Huntington (2006) contested that the conflicts of the future would not be based upon ideology but culture and especially religion. Post 9/11, religion in public life has previously unforeseen prominence. This paper makes the contentious claim that re-assertion of current, intrusive interest by liberal democracies into religious life is an attempted break down of public and private characteristic of totalitarianism, and might be defined as the emergence of a ‘liberal autocracy’.

‘The Totalitarian Imagination’ presents an outline historical-philosophical analysis of the complex inter-relationships between religion, politics and education in three critical phases of modern history: ‘Revolutionary Democracy’ (1789-1916), ‘The Totalitarian Imagination’ (1917-1945/1989- present) and ‘Liberal Autocracy’ (1945/ 1989- present). The paper draws upon a wide review of historical and philosophical literature and applies the theoretical, political constructs around democracy and totalitarianism to the contemporary educational contexts in Europe in which liberal democratic polity is supported by a liberal political education around citizenship and human rights. The paper will be challenging to many of the predominant assumptions around citizenship and citizenship education in Europe, America, and globally (Arthur, Davis and Hahn, 2008).

Based on long term study of religion, politics and education, particularly in regard to citizenship in the UK and internationally (Gearon, 2003; 2003a; 2004; 2007), the paper’s methods and conclusions are tentative and exploratory, designed to provoke peer-review discussion about the direction of education, particularly as regards increasingly critical notions of citizenship, especially national, European and international identities. The work is free-standing, but will form the basis of a projected, larger international study which includes empirical evidence of education systems in Europe and North America, again, one which will be challenging to many of the predominant assumptions around citizenship and citizenship education in these continents, and globally (Arthur, Davis and Hahn, 2008). The paper’s preliminary conclusions have wide implications for education systems across Europe and internationally.