Session Information
31 SES 09, Language Knowledge, Development and Policies in European Countries
Paper Session
Contribution
This paper presents trends in language policies and testing regimes in the context of migration, integration and citizenship in Europe, based on longitudinal survey data. Both a synchronous perspective, comparing language integration policies between countries, as a diachronic perspective, comparing trends in language policies over time, are outlined.
Since the end of the 19th century, Europe has undergone major changes, not least with regard to processes of migration, integration and citizenship. The three main migration waves, occurring in most Western European countries, between the end of World War II and the beginning of the 1990s can be characterized by a certain homogeneity regarding country of origin, socioeconomic background, and sociocultural background of migrants. Post-1990 migration is much more diverse and more “fluid”, beginning as a temporary state of migration gradually becoming permanent. Socioeconomic and sociopolitical developments, such as the fall of the Iron Curtain, the extension of the EU, globalization processes, and the enduring poverty mainly in African countries, have also increased migration into Western European countries. At the same time, Europe is going through a process of economic and political unification. Post-1990 migration has not only become more diverse, it has also become more transitory, consisting of exchange students and high skilled workers; migrants frequently moving within the European space, asylum seekers and migration in the context of family reunification and marriage migration. Traditional processes of acculturation no longer seem to occur. This fourth wave of migration puts much pressure on many European nation-states when it comes to concepts such as social cohesion, integration, access, citizenship, identity, culture, and language (Van Avermaet, 2009a and 2009b).
This paper discusses the ever stricter admission and integration policy measures, imposed by many European countries regarding entering the country, obtaining residency or obtaining citizenship - one of the pivotal policy measures being the acquisition and demonstration of language competencies. Within the European space, historical and socio-political contexts differ considerably between countries, just as the language policies implemented in the context of migration, integration and citizenship. At the same time policy makers strive for transparency and uniformity in migration policies across Europe. This paper emphasizes the contrasting cross-national conditions for admission, integration and naturalization of immigrants.
Although some countries have already had language requirements for managing immigration and citizenship for a long time – e.g. Australia (McNamara, 2009) or the US (Kunnan 2009) – in the last three decades we have seen a proliferation of compulsory language courses and/or tests for integration or citizenship through policy emulation (Foblets et al. 2008, Leung and Lewkowicz 2006, Extra, Spotti and Van Avermaet 2009, Van Avermaet 2009, Van Avermaet 2012).
Questions about the meaning of national identity, and how to maintain social cohesion and preserve national, cultural and linguistic heritage are of growing concern for policy makers and society as a whole (Van Avermaet 2009). The national language and knowledge of society are considered to be essential and definable elements of citizenship (and a successful integration process). Under the same assumption, proficiency in the national language and knowledge of society can thus be used as ‘objective’ measures of conditions for entering the country, obtaining residence and/or obtaining citizenship. In other words, the national language is viewed as an intrinsic part of a national identity; language is considered an indicator of loyalty, patriotism, belonging, inclusion, and membership (Shohamy 2006).
Method
Expected Outcomes
References
Extra, G., M. Spotti & P. Van Avermaet (2009). Testing regimes for newcomers. In: Extra, G., M. Spotti & P. Van Avermaet (Eds.). Language Testing, Migration and Citizenship: Cross-National Perspectives. London: Continuum. 2009. Foblets, Marie-Claire, Abdallah Himmet, Johan Wets, and Zeynep Yanasmayan. 15/02/2008. “Language and Integration Requirements in Belgium: Discordances between the Flemish Policy of ‘Inburgering’ and the Federal Legislators’ View(s) on Integration of Newcomers and Migrants.” Paper presented at the seminar “Language and Integration Tests for Newcomers and Future Citizens”. Nijmegen, Radboud University. Kunnan, Anthony. 2009. “Testing for Citizenship: The U.S. Naturalization Test.” Language Assessment Quarterly 6 (1): 89–97. Leung, C., and Lewkowicz, J.O. (2006) Expanding Horizons and Unresolved Conundrums: Language Testing and Assessment, TESOL Quarterly 40(1): 211-234 McNamara, Tim. 2009. “Australia: The Dictation Test Redux?” Language Assessment Quarterly 6 (1): 106–111. Pulinx, R., Van Avermaet, P. & Extramiana, C. (2014). Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants: Policy and Practice. Final Report on the 3rd Council of Europe Survey. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, Language Policy Unit, Education Policy Division. Shohamy, Elana. 2006. Language Policy. Hidden agendas and new approaches. Oxford: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Van Avermaet, P. & Extramiana, C. (2012). Les migrants face aux lanuges des pays d’acceuil. In: Les Savoirs Mieux P. 153 – 171. Van Avermaet, P. (2009). Fortress Europe? Language policy regimes for immigration and citizenship. In Hogan-Brun, Mar-Molinero and Stevenson (eds): Disourses on Language and Integration. Critical perspectives on language testing regimes in Europe. 15-44. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Van Avermaet, P. & Gysen, S. (2009). Language policies for citizenship and integration. The Belgian case. In: Extra, G., M. Spotti & P. Van Avermaet (Eds.). Language Testing, Migration and Citizenship: Cross-National Perspectives. London: Continuum.
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