Poland has been seen as one of the examples of the growing authoritarian populism, with right-wing ideological beliefs constraining free speech, creating deep social divisions, and influencing education curricula. The process of transformation from the authoritarian communist regime to a more democratic system is still evident in a number of dimensions of Poland’s society, including education.

In education, the major reforms undertaken over the last three decades have changed the educational structures, institutions and processes, and established Poland’s schooling system as one of the highly effective. Poland may seem ‘successful’ when focusing on the measurement of its educational goal attainment (e.g. PISA or PIRLS) however there are indications of deep-rooted problems related to the forms of cultural capital promoted in schools which contribute to the reproduction of dominant cultural and economic values represented by ruling and powerful groups (Apple, 2004). It means that there is significant work to be done to understand conditions of the inequality and hegemony of the current system and enable “the creation and recreation of meaning and values” for all citizens in the democratic way (Apple, 2004, p. xxiv).

This is in the context of a specific status of education in Poland which is characterised by its ‘national’ significance - education has been seen in Poland as a bastion of national survival, especially during turbulent historical times. The subjects of history and Polish literature, in particular, have been regarded as significant instruments in preserving Polish values, language and identity. This is particularly important under the right-wing populist governments, governing Poland since 2015, which emphasise the growing threat to the Polish way of life using highly emotive language with a narrative inspired by past historical events, aiming to create an integrated national self-image which Pankowski (2010) calls Polonism.

This research, therefore, takes a detailed look into the socio-political themes and topics discussed in classrooms in Poland, especially in relation to ‘controversial’ topics, and how teachers deal with them. We analyse the ways teachers have been affected by the current political climate by focusing on teachers’ engagement in discussing difficult or controversial topics, and how intentional these conversations were.

Research into discussing controversial issues in the classrooms has attracted a lot of attention due to the growing social and political tensions evident in many countries, and the schools’ role in moderating discussions on public policy issues (Kello 2016; Dunn, Sondel & Baggett 2019; Cassar, Oosterheert & Meijer 2021; Sætra 2021). The role of the teacher in managing such conversations is crucial. Poland is an interesting case study for research on teacher practices and controversial issues in the classroom due to its complex domestic socio-political situation, as well as its continuously reforming education system. It becomes important to learn more about the mindset of practicing teachers, their attitudes and decision-making in relation to selecting and discussing difficult, and often controversial, topics in their classrooms. At a time of need for critical thinking skills and democratic debate, the transformation of pedagogical approaches, and the attitudes of teachers towards understanding and shaping of critical thinking and socially-engaged attitudes among students requires specific attention

The conducted study involved individual, partially structured interviews with 22 secondary school teachers who taught the Polish language subject (literacy and literature) in schools across Poland. The native language subject in secondary schools has the highest number of instructional hours and enables discussions on various topics related to the cultural texts mandated by the curriculum, which encompass diverse social, political, and psychological topics. The aim of the empirical data collection was to understand the experiences of secondary school teachers in the context of socio-political changes in Poland, and particularly their approach to discussing current socio-political and controversial topics. Once the data was collected in schools, the researchers engaged in transnational research collaboration between two academics based in Poland and one academic based outside Europe and who represents a diaspora perspective (Bauböck, 2010; Said, 1993). Therefore, the coding and analysis of the interview data have been influenced by specific positionalities of the authors drawing from the ‘contrapuntal’ perspective. The counterpoint view, as introduced by Edward Said (1993), influenced the way the research has evolved by integrating different points of view, resolving tensions and revealing the perspectives not visible to the individual researchers based either too close or too distant from the object of the analysis. This paper is positioned within the critical education literature which posits that the teaching practice needs to be intentional and purposeful, and embedded in the commitment to democracy and equity and dismantling existing power structures. This is possible, for example, through “everyday resistance” (Johansson & Vinthagen cited in: Allatt & Tett, 2021, p.42) in teaching practice which challenges dominant discourses, asserts agency to support meaningful practices and finds ways to provide wider experience beyond what is included in the curriculum. Such acts of resistance may include “workarounds” such as “problem-solving, improvisation, deviation, creative interpretation, shortcuts” (Smythe, 2015 p. 6). The intentional acts of dealing with ideological pressures, shortages of funding, or internal contradictions are acts of “opposition” (Zarifis, 2021, p.228). These intentional acts of opposition can be seen as a part of the reframing of the social justice pedagogical perspectives as suggested by Shaw and Crowther (2014).

This research provided some important insights into teachers’ experiences discussing difficult topics in Polish classrooms and illustrated the examples of the levels of intentionality and engagement from teachers. The main topics perceived as controversial related to the most debated socio-political topics in Poland: the war in Ukraine, gender issues, LGBTQI issues, feminism, and religion. Many teachers in the study expressed concerns, or exhibited a high level of caution, towards intentionally introducing such subjects for discussion due to the fear of adverse consequences but also a lack of direction in terms of, if and how, to approach such topics. For the most part teachers demonstrated ‘unconscious conformism’ when dealing with difficult issues. Many teachers used a range of positions and strategies to conform. These included: hiding or avoiding, finding common ground or smoothing edges, or just doing the job - the strategies identified by Kello (2016) as common teaching positions taken by teachers when dealing with controversial topics in divided societies. This is problematic as such approaches are not conducive to shaping students’ ability for critical reflection, ability to debate, formulate critical judgements and resist pressure of media discourses. In our interviews we have not found convincing evidence that the teachers have consciously created empathy-developing debating environments or explicitly developed inquiry skills by using the opportunities created by current socio-political topics. On the contrary, many unconsciously contributed to creating a classroom environment that inhibits the development of civic engagement. While this research focused specifically on Poland’s socio-political context, the issues identified in the Polish education system remain relevant to other Western democracies, as their teachers similarly struggle to navigate the demands of their nations’ history, politics, parental pressures and competitive market in the globalised world.

Allatt, G., & Tett, L. (2019). The employability skills discourse and literacy practitioners. In L. Tett & M. Hamilton (Eds.), Resisting Neoliberalism in Education: Local, National and Transnational Perspectives (pp. 41-54): Bristol University Press. Apple, M., (2004). Ideology and Curriculum (3rd ed.). Routledge Bauböck, R. (2010). Studying Citizenship Constellations, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(5), 847-859, DOI: 10.1080/13691831003764375 Cassar, C., Oosterheert, I., & Meijer, P. C. (2021). The classroom in turmoil: teachers’ perspective on unplanned controversial issues in the classroom. Teachers and Teaching, 27(7), 656-671. doi:10.1080/13540602.2021.1986694 Dunn, A. H., Sondel, B., & Baggett, H. C. (2019). “I Don’t Want to Come Off as Pushing an Agenda”: How Contexts Shaped Teachers’ Pedagogy in the Days After the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election. American Educational Research Journal, 56(2), 444–476. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218794892 Kello, K. (2016). Sensitive and Controversial Issues in the Classroom: Teaching History in a Divided Society. Teachers and Teaching Theory and Practice, 22. doi:10.1080/13540602.2015.1023027 Pankowski R. (2010). The Populist Radical Right in Poland: The Patriots. Taylor and Francis Group. Sætra, E. (2021). Discussing Controversial Issues in the Classroom: Elements of Good Practice. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 65(2), 345-357. doi:10.1080/00313831.2019.1705897 Said, Edward W. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage Shaw, M., Crowther, J., (2014). Adult education, community development and democracy: renegotiating the terms of engagement. Community Development Journal 49, 390–406. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bst057 Smythe, S. (2015). Ten Years of Adult Literacy Policy and Practice in Canada: Literacy Policy Tensions and Workarounds. Language & Literacy: A Canadian Educational E-Journal, 17(2), 4-21. doi:10.20360/G2WK59 Zarifis, G. K. (2019). Rethinking adult education for active participatory citizenship and resistance in Europe. In L. Tett & M. Hamilton (Eds.), Resisting Neoliberalism in Education: Local, National and Transnational Perspectives (pp. 225-238): Bristol University Press.