The teaching workforce in and beyond Europe is facing unprecedented challenges. Many European school systems face teacher shortages as recruitment targets are missed and rates of attrition rise. Challenging employment conditions saw industrial action by teachers in France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Spain, Portugal and the UK in 2022 and 2023. The European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE) and European Federation of Education Employers joint Framework of Actions in response to the declining attractiveness of the teaching profession signalled a need for adequate pay, and equitable and sustainable workloads (ETUCE-EFEE, 2023). Teachers report reform fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and burnout as they contend with multiple new initiatives, the impact of the pandemic on learner progress and wellbeing, stringent accountability demands, increasing class size, and diverse learner needs (Heffernan et al., 2022; OECD, 2023). Advances in communications technology mean that educators are increasingly deemed available outside traditional school hours.

This paper reports research commissioned by the largest teacher union in Scotland, the Educational Institute of Scotland, in response to workload concerns expressed by teachers in Scotland’s schools. This examination of teachers’ time use attends to both the number of hours and the nature or constitution of hours spent on work inside and out of the classroom and school. Workload is approached here not just in terms of working hours (volume) but also intensity (i.e., job-related demands in relation to available resources) (Stacey et al., 2022). The study considers the relationship between workload, teacher stress and work intensity and manageability (Creagh et al, 2023; Liu et al., 2023).

Workload reduction initiatives have tended to place primary responsibility on educators rather than the institutional and policy context in which they work (Spicksley, 2022). In contrast, this research adopts a social-ecological approach that acknowledges the importance of context in shaping the capacity of teachers to respond well to job-related stressors.

The following research questions are addressed:

• What are the main activities that constitute teacher workload?
• What is the balance of this workload over the working week?
• What extra hours do teachers, on average and by characteristic (education setting, gender, contract type), work beyond their contractual hours?
• Where do workload demands come from outwith class contact time?

The main methods of data collection were an online time use diary during one calendar week (using QuestionPro online survey platform) followed by semi-structured remote interviews. A survey link was distributed via workplace email to EIS members currently employed in schools. This method allowed for as close-to-real-time registration of activities without placing an undue burden on participants (te Braak et al., 2023). Participants recorded the full range of work-related activities undertaken over the preceding working days (including evenings) and weekend (i.e., the hours they must work, the hours they do work, and the nature and drivers of work-related activity). Digital diaries were preferred to paper leave-behind diaries because they are cost-effective, permit stronger communication with participants and make completion as easy as possible for those taking part (Sullivan et al., 2020) to not add further to teachers’ workload. They also show no more social desirability issues than offline surveys (Dodou, & de Winter, 2014). A self-completed electronic diary was preferred to a telephone recall diary to eliminate potential for interviewer bias (Allan et al., 2020). Comparison of the quality of data obtained through time-use diaries and direct observation has shown that teachers can reliably self-report their working time retrospectively (Vannest and Hagan-Burke, 2010). Pre-coded activities in the time use diary were generated in consultation with a volunteer teacher panel comprised of twelve primary and secondary teachers employed in four local authorities with a range of roles and varied length of experience. The contribution of panel members informed the design of the time use diary and reduced the risk of partial completion by respondents. The School Staff Census was used to assess proportionality against teaching and demographic characteristics (self-reported gender, age, main role in school, phase, length of teaching experience, tenure/contract type, local authority (Scottish Government Learning Directorate, 2022). Phase two of the research involved semi-structured interviews of 45 minutes duration with thirty teachers to deepen the analysis beyond the number of working hours to factors that explain composition of work patterns. Flexibility was offered in terms of the mode of remote interview – telephone or online video call - to accommodate interviewee preferences, availability and location. Analysis of verbatim interview transcripts was supported by NVivo software. A small sample of transcripts was coded independently by two researchers who then met to discuss appropriate codes and clarify inconsistencies. This process of cross-checking informed the coding of the remainder of the transcripts.

This research provides new evidence on how statutory and actual working time is spent (nature, scale and scope) and the factors that explain emergent patterns in time use among teachers in Scotland. The findings confirm a marked divergence between actual working time and the time that is recognised. Non-teaching tasks with less direct links to educational benefit for learners are more likely to be perceived as contributing to workload burden. Teachers report a reduction in autonomy over the use of time in face-to-face and non-teaching tasks (i.e., working time inflexibility). In particular, the fragmentation of tasks and escalation of routine administrative activity restricts time available for relationship building and pastoral care. As a result, teachers contend with difficult choices and considerable ambiguity between what constitutes high value core work and directed activity for accountability purposes. Excess working time and limited task discretion have important implications for professional identity, motivation, and career intentions.

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