Police training poses unique challenges due to its inherently multidisciplinary nature, requiring a blend of technical expertise and interpersonal skills to meet diverse and demanding responsibilities. In-field training serves as a cornerstone of police education, immersing students in real-world policing environments. This hands-on training allows students to directly experience the situational demands of law enforcement while fostering their integration into police culture. Experiential learning in such contexts is pivotal for developing professional identity and competencies, offering students practical opportunities to refine their skills, reflect on their roles, and bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and the real-world demands of professional policing.

The guidance provided during in-field training predominantly comes from Field Training Officers (FTOs), whose role is critical in facilitating effective workplace learning. Formal supervision, characterized by its structured, planned, and evaluative nature, provides a framework for tracking progress. However, informal supervision, which arises spontaneously and responds dynamically to situational contexts, plays an equally vital role. Informal supervision allows police students to observe, engage, and reflect on practical scenarios, particularly during patrols. It emphasizes ongoing feedback and reflective dialogue, both essential for navigating the complexities of professional demands. Despite its importance, informal supervision remains underexplored in academic literature, creating a knowledge gap regarding its full contribution to police education.

This study addresses this gap by examining informal supervision as a complementary process to formal training. Specifically, it seeks to uncover how interactions between FTOs and police students during patrols support skill development, cultural integration, and reflective practices. The study is guided by the research question: How do field training officers and police students perceive informal supervision during patrol as contributing to the professional development of police students?

The study’s theoretical framework integrates workplace learning and informal supervision. Workplace learning encompasses both formal and informal educational activities. While formal learning is structured, goal-oriented, and institutionally driven—such as the foundational instruction provided in police academies—informal learning emerges organically, often driven by the immediate demands of the work environment. This spontaneous, context-driven learning occurs through observation, collaboration, feedback, and reflection, enabling students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. Informal learning fosters adaptability, practical skill-building, and the acquisition of tacit knowledge, which are frequently overlooked in traditional formal education settings.

Informal supervision builds on the principles of informal workplace learning, providing situationally responsive guidance in dynamic and unpredictable environments. The concept of "informal situated supervision" highlights how spontaneous, on-the-spot conversations between supervisors and students address immediate challenges while fostering relational trust. Grounded in situated learning theory, informal supervision underscores the significance of learning within authentic social and cultural contexts. Furthermore, it aligns with Schön's concept of "reflection-in-action," emphasizing the importance of adapting professional judgment in real-time to evolving scenarios.

In the context of police education, informal supervision frequently takes place during patrols, which function as mobile classrooms. FTOs use these real-world interactions to provide timely feedback, facilitate situational analysis, and guide students through complex scenarios. This approach complements formal supervision by addressing immediate, context-specific learning needs, allowing students to process and respond to practical challenges in real time. Informal supervision is recognized as a vital mechanism for bridging the divide between classroom instruction and the unpredictable realities of policing, ultimately supporting the professional growth of future officers.

The study investigates the role of informal supervision during in-field police training within Norwegian police education, which integrates theoretical and practical learning in a three-year bachelor’s program. During the second year, students undergo ten months of in-field training at police stations, including 17 weeks of patrols with a designated Field Training Officer (FTO). This practical experience emphasizes skill development, cultural integration, and reflective learning through real-world policing scenarios. A qualitative research design was employed to explore the perceptions and experiences of both FTOs and police students. Semi-structured focus group interviews were used to collect data, enabling participants to elaborate on their experiences while allowing researchers to explore predefined themes. This method facilitated an in-depth understanding of informal supervision dynamics and its impact on professional development. The study involved eight FTOs and eight police students, divided into four focus groups: two with FTOs and two with police students. This division ensured a comprehensive exploration of both supervisory and trainee perspectives.The focus group interviews revolved around topics such as the nature of informal supervision during patrols, feedback practices, reflective learning, and the integration of theoretical knowledge into practice. Thematic analysis, following Clarke and Braun’s (2013) framework, was utilized to analyze the data. This approach emphasizes analytical flexibility and researcher reflexivity, beginning with familiarization through repeated review of transcripts. An inductive coding approach was applied to generate codes and themes from the data, reflecting participants' lived experiences of informal supervision. Key segments of the data were systematically coded, focusing on aspects like immediate feedback, the patrol car as a learning environment, emotional regulation, and the blending of theory with practice.

The study underscores the critical role of informal supervision in police in-field training, highlighting its significant contribution to the professional development of police students and its complementary role to formal learning. Informal supervision, often taking place in the patrol car, enables real-time discussions that allow students to analyze events, receive immediate feedback, and explore alternative approaches to practical challenges. These spontaneous, context-driven exchanges enhance decision-making, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, aligning with the dynamic demands of policing. Moreover, informal supervision helps students anticipate challenges and mentally prepare for high-stress situations through scenario planning and strategy discussions. Following assignments, reflective debriefing sessions provide opportunities to assess performance, identify areas for improvement, and reinforce effective practices. This dual approach fosters both professional competence and emotional resilience, equipping students to handle the unpredictable nature of police work. The patrol car emerges as a pivotal learning space, creating a psychologically safe environment where students feel comfortable admitting mistakes, asking questions, and engaging in self-reflection. This relational trust strengthens students’ integration into police culture, supports their emotional well-being, and enhances their ability to learn and grow in complex operational contexts. An overall finding is that informal supervision bridges the gap between formal education and the situational realities of policing, fostering reflective learning, emotional preparedness, and cultural integration. While informal supervision significantly enhances police training, its unstructured nature can lead to inconsistencies. This highlights the importance of providing pedagogical training for Field Training Officers (FTOs) to ensure that informal supervisory practices are consistent and effective. The study suggests future research should explore informal learning in other contexts of police work and focus on developing structured support for FTOs to optimize their supervisory roles.

Belur, J., Agnew-Pauley, W., McGinley, B., & Tompson, L. (2020). A systematic review of police recruit training programmes. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 14(1), 76–90. Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2013). Teaching thematic analysis: Overcoming challenges and developing strategies for effective learning. The psychologist, 26(2), 120–123. Coren, S., & Farber, B. A. (2019). A qualitative investigation of the nature of “informal supervision” among therapists in training. Psychotherapy Research, 29(5), 679–690. Dulin, A., Dulin, L., & Patino, J. (2020). Transferring Police Academy Training to the Street: The Field Training Experience. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35(4), 432–442. Edmondson, A. C., & Lei, Z. (2014). Psychological Safety: The History, Renaissance, and Future of an Interpersonal Construct. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 23–43. Eraut, M. (2004). Informal learning in the workplace. Studies in Continuing Education, 26(2), 247–273. Hoel, L. (2020). ‘Police students’ experience of participation and relationship during in-field training’. Police Practice and Research, 21(6), 576–590. Høigaard, R., & Mathisen, P. (2008). Informal situated counselling in a school context†. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21(3), 293–299. Janssens, L., Smet, K., Onghena, P., & Kyndt, E. (2017). The relationship between learning conditions in the workplace and informal learning outcomes: A study among police inspectors. International Journal of Training and Development, 21(2), 92–112. Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2014). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. I Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (s. 227–247). Routledge. Kyndt, E., Dochy, F., & Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non‐formal and informal workplace learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5), 369–383. Lave, J. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge university press. Paterson, C. (2011). Adding value? A review of the international literature on the role of higher education in police training and education. Police Practice and Research, 12(4), 286–297. Schön, D. A. (2017). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Routledge. Sjöberg, D., & Holmgren, R. (2021). Informal Workplace Learning in Swedish Police Education– A Teacher Perspective. Vocations and Learning, 14(2), 265–284. Tyler, M. A., & Mckenzie, W. E. (2014). Training by the dashboard lights: Police training officers’ perspectives. Studies in the Education of Adults, 46(1), 74–90.