Introduction

Blended learning (BL) offers benefits like flexibility and accessibility (Dziuban et al., 2018). However, reduced in-person interaction can lead to feelings of isolation, loneliness, and demotivation among students (Arslan, 2021; Hehir et al., 2021). These challenges are also specifically concerning in the context of higher education, where student well-being is a top priority internationally. Sense of community (SoC) has been identified as a crucial factor for enhancing student social engagement and learning experiences (Mendoza & Venables, 2023; Rovai & Jordan, 2004). Yet, fostering SoC in BL remains complex, as it requires unique strategies when physical presence is reduced. To address this, a professional development (PD) program was developed to help teachers promote SoC in BL. This study aims to explore the impact of this PD on students' perceived SoC in BL.

Theoretical framework

BL integrates face-to-face with online learning, which requires incorporating social, cognitive, and teaching presence (Garrison & Vaughan, 2011). Social presence fosters an open and trusting environment among students; cognitive presence supports structured activities for higher-order learning; and teaching presence guides and facilitates social and cognitive presence (Garrison & Vaughan, 2011). The integration of these types of presence is crucial in fostering SoC (Garrison & Vaughan, 2011; Stubb et al., 2011), as it lays the foundation for creating meaningful connections and engagement among students.

SoC is defined as the feeling of belonging, mutual care, and shared commitment among students (McMillan & Chavis, 1986). In BL, SoC is characterized by two key dimensions: connectedness and learning (Rovai, 2002). Connectedness encompasses these key elements:

• Cohesion unites students by promoting active participation and group effectiveness while ensuring individuals feel valued and motivated.
• Interdependence emphasizes that students' success relies on the contributions and support of their peers.
• Trust reflects students' confidence in one another, characterized by credibility (reliability) and benevolence (desire to help).
• Spirit refers to a sense of belonging, fostering friendship, joy, and enthusiasm for shared experiences.

Learning emphasizes interactions among community members as they collaboratively construct understanding and align their values and beliefs around shared educational goals:  

• Interaction can be task-driven (focused on assignments) or socio-emotional (building relationships through empathy and self-disclosure).
• Shared educational goals reflect students' collective academic aspirations and their mutual responsibility to collaborate toward achieving them.

Further, connectedness is linked to students’ involvement in social presence, while learning is supported by cognitive presence that stimulates critical thinking and meaningful discourse (Rovai, 2002). Teaching presence is the link between connectedness and learning, shaped by teachers' roles and practices that impact how students perceive SoC (Pei et al., 2023).

Building on these theoretical insights, a PD program was developed to help teachers promote SoC in BL. The PD began with interactive plenary sessions in which teachers explored BL and SoC theories. These sessions included concrete examples of activities designed to foster SoC. Teachers shared ideas and collaborated with peers and BL experts in designing their own BL courses. In the second phase, teachers implemented their chosen SoC activities, receiving tailored support through individual consultations and technical assistance from BL experts to ensure the effective integration of these strategies into their practice.

An initial evaluation, based on teachers' perceptions of the PD’s viability (McKenney & Reeves, 2018) confirmed its positive impact on teachers' knowledge, skills, and instructional practices related to SoC (Pei et al., 2024). However, the ultimate goal of PD is to improve student outcomes (Desimone, 2009). Thus, the research questions for this study are

To what extent does the professional development designed for teachers impact students' sense of community in a blended learning course, specifically in terms of their perceived connectedness (RQ1) and learning (RQ2)?

This research, conducted at a Dutch university in 2024, employed purposive criterion sampling (Patton, 2014) to select three teachers from different disciplines, with varied experiences in BL and their course sizes ranging from 50 to 400 students. All three teachers participated in the PD program and applied their newly acquired knowledge in their respective courses. All students provided informed and voluntary consent, and the study received ethical approval from the university's ethics committee prior to data collection. Quantitative surveys assessed the PD’s impact on students, while qualitative methods (i.e., classroom observations and group interviews) were employed to explore the underlying mechanisms behind the results: The study used Rovai’s (Rovai, 2002) Classroom Community Scale to measure students' SoC. This self-reported 20-item survey includes 10 items on connectedness (e.g., "I feel connected to others in this course") and 10 on learning (e.g., “I feel that I am given ample opportunities to learn”). Responses were rated on a five-point Likert scale, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92 for connectedness and 0.87 for learning. Surveys were administered at both the beginning and end of the course to measure changes in connectedness, while learning-related questions were assessed only at the course’s end, as students were unable to reflect on their learning experiences at the outset (e.g., “I feel that this course results in only modest learning). Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were used to analyse the survey data, and a paired t-test was conducted to identify significant differences between pre- and post-survey connectedness scores. Six classroom observation sessions were conducted per course, at the beginning, middle, and end, to examine SoC at various stages. These observations served three purposes: identifying teachers’ instructional strategies acquired from the PD, contextualizing SoC dynamics within the specific BL courses, and informing subsequent student interviews. Semi-structured group interviews were conducted at the end of each course, exploring how teaching methods impacted students' SoC. All students were approached, and 25 students volunteered to be interviewed. Member checking was conducted, and all interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Content analysis used a codebook based on connectedness (cohesion, spirit, trust, interdependence) and learning (interactions, shared educational goals). To ensure coding reliability, a researcher who was not involved in the study will code 10% of the data.

Findings from the first two courses suggest that the strategies teachers learned through the PD positively impacted students' perceived SoC. In Course 1, connectedness scores significantly increased from 19.10 to 22.93 (t(41) = 5.23, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.807), mainly due to trust-building and interdependence in group work. The teacher’s focus on psychological safety fostered trust, leading to higher engagement. Students noted that academic collaboration strengthened group cohesion, though they did not feel a "family-like" bond, which they viewed as unnecessary. Course 2 showed similar improvements, with scores rising from 17.38 to 21.75 (p = 0.015, Cohen’s d = 0.684), particularly in reducing students' sense of isolation. However, the gains were less pronounced, and students displayed limited mutual dependence. While digital collaboration was helpful, it could not fully replicate the richness of in-person group dynamics, especially in fostering connectedness among students. In terms of learning, students in both courses valued the interactions aimed at achieving shared educational goals. These interactions increased motivation, accountability, and a deeper understanding of the course content. Group work facilitated the application of concepts, enhancing the learning experience. However, challenges with group dynamics, particularly when some students were less engaged, underscored the need for careful structuring to ensure consistent participation. Further data from Course 3 will provide additional insights and help refine these conclusions. We anticipate that the study will offer critical insights into the balance between online and in-person interactions, shaping effective strategies for fostering a strong sense of community among students. The findings are expected to inform best practices for refining PD programs, empowering teachers in the development of blended learning and broader digitized education.

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