The integration of technology in education has become increasingly essential, particularly in response to emergency situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced a rapid transition to online learning (Hodges et al., 2020; Rasmitadila et al., 2020). However, disparities in access to technology, professional training, and institutional readiness continue to shape the extent to which teachers successfully implement digital tools in their pedagogical practices. This study examines the differences between Arab and Jewish teachers in Israel in their attitudes towards technology integration, digital proficiency, and school preparedness, with a particular focus on the role of cognitive perceptions and socio-cultural factors in shaping technology adoption.

This quantitative study surveyed 403 teachers (308 Arab, 95 Jewish) using structured questionnaires, assessing cognitive attitudes towards technology, digital competency, openness to pedagogical change, and institutional preparedness. Given the imbalance in sample sizes, propensity score matching (PSM) was applied to ensure statistical reliability in comparisons between the groups.

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

This study is grounded in the Attitude-Behavior Theory and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), both of which explain how cognitive and behavioral mechanisms influence teachers' digital adoption. According to Attitude-Behavior Theory (Ajzen et al., 2018), an individual’s attitudes shape their behavioral intentions and actual behavior. Teachers’ beliefs about the effectiveness and ease of technology use significantly impact their willingness to integrate digital tools into instruction (Tondeur et al., 2017; Adov et al., 2020). Similarly, TAM (Davis, 1989) posits that perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are key determinants of technology acceptance.

Teachers with a constructivist pedagogical ideology, which emphasizes student-centered learning, are more likely to implement digital tools effectively (Vasel et al., 2024). Conversely, those who adhere to traditional pedagogical methods may view technology as disruptive rather than complementary (Tondeur et al., 2017). Recent studies suggest that teachers' pedagogical beliefs and attitudes significantly influence their acceptance of digital technology in education (Scherer & Teo, 2019; Adov et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2017).

Teachers' cognitive perceptions play a key role in shaping their engagement with technology. Studies indicate that Arab teachers, despite their enthusiasm for technology, encounter systemic barriers such as limited digital infrastructure and professional training, impacting their digital mastery (Vasel, 2023). This is further exacerbated by broader disparities in education, as previous research has highlighted significant gaps in access to digital learning tools and professional development opportunities between Arab and Jewish teachers in Israel (Arar & Abu-Asbah, 2013; Masry-Herzallah & Stavissky, 2021).

Research Hypotheses:

1. Differences will be found between the attitudes of Arab and Jewish teachers regarding the use of ICT in teaching.
2. Teachers' cognitive perceptions of distance online teaching technologies and their ethnic group will be associated with their behavior related to the use and application of this technology.

Objective and Research Hypotheses The objective of this study is to examine differences between Arab and Jewish teachers in Israel regarding technology integration in teaching, following their experiences with remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focuses on cognitive perceptions, ethnic group differences, and their interaction in shaping teachers' behavior, alongside schools' preparedness for digital transformation. Participants The study sample comprised 403 teachers from Israel's Arab and Jewish education sectors, including 308 Arab teachers (76%) and 95 Jewish teachers (24%). Participants had an average age of 43.9 years (SD = 8.57), with 79% female and 58% holding at least a master’s degree. Research Process Participants were recruited voluntarily through a multi-tiered dissemination strategy. A formal invitation to participate was sent to school principals, supervisors, and teacher trainers, who were asked to share the survey with teachers in their respective networks. The questionnaire was also distributed via professional groups and online platforms frequently used by educators. This open recruitment method ensured a diverse representation of teachers across different school types, geographic locations, and years of teaching experience. Research Tools A structured questionnaire, developed by the Author (Vasel, 2025) and accepted for publication, assessed teachers' attitudes and behaviors regarding technology integration. The questionnaire included four key domains: 1. Cognitive Perceptions (24 items) – Evaluating teachers' views on technology in education. 2. Control of ICT Tools (13 items) – Measuring digital proficiency. 3. Willingness to Adopt Change (14 items) – Assessing openness to pedagogical innovation. 4. School Preparedness (9 items) – Gauging institutional readiness for technology integration. Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Internal reliability tests showed strong consistency across all scales (e.g., Cognitive Perceptions, α = .97; Willingness to Adopt Change, α = .91). Data Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS (V26) and R. Propensity score matching (PSM) balanced Arab and Jewish teacher groups (n=85 each) based on age, gender, experience, and education. T-tests, correlations, and multiple regression were performed (p ≤ 0.05), with Cohen’s d measuring effect sizes for robust interpretation

This study highlights key disparities between Arab and Jewish teachers regarding digital integration in education. Arab teachers exhibited more positive perceptions of technology use, challenging previous findings that characterized them as more traditional and resistant to change (Habiballah et al., 2021; Zemach & Meisher-Tal, 2020). However, Jewish teachers demonstrated greater digital proficiency, aligning with research on disparities in professional development and digital access (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Masry-Herzallah & Stavissky, 2021; Vasel, 2024). Jewish teachers also showed higher willingness to adopt technological innovations, potentially due to greater school autonomy, better training resources, and improved digital infrastructure. Despite these differences, both Arab and Jewish schools displayed limited institutional readiness for digital transformation, indicating system-wide challenges (Arar & Massry-Herzallah, 2016; Vasel, 2023; Oplatka & Arar, 2016). ). The study further revealed that cognitive perceptions significantly influenced technology-related behaviors, with Arab teachers’ attitudes being a stronger predictor of their digital tool mastery and openness to change (Tondeur et al., 2017; Adov et al., 2020). These findings support attitude-behavior theories (Ajzen et al., 2018) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989), which emphasize the role of perceptions in shaping technology adoption. Implications • Educational policymakers should implement sector-specific digital training programs to address competency gaps. • Teacher training programs must focus on both attitude shifts and digital skills to enhance technology adoption. • Future research should examine additional socio-cultural factors influencing teacher behavior and compare findings in global contexts. Understanding cultural and ethnic disparities in technology adoption is essential for developing inclusive digital education policies. This study offers empirical insights that can guide equitable technology integration across diverse educational systems.

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