Since the ratification of the UN-CRPD (2006), one of the key challenges in education has been to create inclusive learning environments that facilitate the social and academic participation of all students. Despite considerable policy initiatives, true inclusion remains an elusive goal, with students with disabilities often experiencing social exclusion and limited opportunities for meaningful engagement. They often report few friendships and social interactions in the classroom, feelings of being unwelcome, and low levels of social acceptance (Koster et al., 2009). These challenges are particularly pronounced for students with social-emotional disabilities (Krull et al., 2018), who are prone to severe forms of victimisation, bullying, and exclusion from peer activities during school hours and breaks (de Leeuw et al., 2018). The consequences of persistent exclusion, isolation and victimisation can be significant, often leading to long-term difficulties such as loneliness, low self-worth, depressive symptoms and poor academic performance (Juvonen et al., 2019). This demonstrates that merely educating students with and without disabilities in the same classroom is insufficient. Instead, it is necessary to establish supportive learning environments that facilitate both academic and social development. Such environments allow students with disabilities to live and learn alongside their peers, thereby fostering a sense of equal membership within their social groups (Garrote et al., 2017). Recent studies have shown that primary school students’ positive attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities – defined as “psychological tendencies that are expressed by evaluating objects, people, or ideas with varying degrees of favourability or disfavour” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1) – play a crucial role in promoting their peers’ successful social participation (Freer, 2021). Furthermore, students’ supportive behaviours towards peers with disabilities – understood as actions that provide emotional, social, or practical assistance to others, typically aimed at improving well-being, fostering a positive environment, or helping others overcome challenges (Cohen & Wills, 1985) – are an important indicator of their peers’ social participation in inclusive education (Davis, 2018). According to the research, students’ attitudes vary considerably by the type of disability. Thus, students have significantly fewer positive attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities than towards peers with other disabilities, e.g., sensory or physical disabilities (Freer, 2021). The literature on students’ social support behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities is currently limited. However, there is some evidence from intervention studies that peer support can positively influence the social and academic outcomes of students with learning and behavioural disabilities and can serve as a protective factor against peer victimisation (Griese & Buhs, 2014). Until now, the factors that contribute to students’ attitudes and supportive behaviours are largely unknown. Theoretical and empirical approaches (e.g., Allport, 1954; Davis, 2018) highlight the importance of students’ empathy – defined as “the reactions of one individual to the observed experiences of another” (Davis, 1983, p. 113) – and their contact experiences with peers with disabilities in developing positive attitudes towards peers with disabilities. For example, Armstrong et al. (2016) showed that students’ contact with people with disabilities is a significant predictor of their positive attitudes towards peers with disabilities, and that this relationship is mediated by their empathy. According to Feinman’s (1982) 'social referencing theory', it has also been shown that teachers’ behaviour towards children with disabilities is significantly related to their students’ attitudes and supportive behaviour towards peers with disabilities in the classroom (van der Sande et al., 2018). Against this theoretical and empirical background, we propose the following research hypothesis: 

Primary school students’ attitudes and supportive behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities can each be explained by their empathy, contact experiences, and perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards students with disabilities.

For the purposes of our study, N = 577 primary school students (292 girls and 285 boys) from grades 3 and 4 (M = 9.25 years; SD = 0.78 years; range: 7–12 years) completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire during class time. Based on a gendered vignette describing a child with social-emotional problems: “Hanna/Hannes is new in town and is in the same class as you. Hanna/Hannes is often restless, fidgety, and easily distracted in class. She/He often does not follow the teacher’s instructions”, they answered items about their attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities (10 items; e.g., “I would feel comfortable working with Hanna/Hannes at school.”, M = 3.13, SD = 0.98, α = .92; Rosenbaum et al., 1986), their contact experiences with people with disabilities (7 items; e.g., “I’ve often played with someone like Hanna/Hannes.”; M = 2.91, SD = 1.11, α = .88; Rosenbaum et al., 1986), and their perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards peers with disabilities (8 items; e.g., “My teacher makes sure that Hanna/Hannes feels comfortable in the classroom.”; M = 4.02, SD = 0.65, α = .81; Rosenbaum et al., 1986). Therefore, the case vignette helps to consistently assess students’ attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities, their contact experiences with peers with disabilities and their perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities. Furthermore, we assessed students’ empathy (5 items; e.g., “It’s easy for me to see things from a peer’s perspective.”; M = 3.37, SD = 0.92, α = .83; Davis, 1983) and their supportive behaviour (9 items; e.g., “If a classmate is being teased, I stand up for them.”; M = 4.12, SD = 0.69, α = .88; Davis, 1983). To analyse the determinants of students’ attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities and their supportive behaviour, we used structural equation modelling. This approach allowed us to examine the relationships between observed and latent variables, considering the hierarchical structure of the data, with students nested within classrooms. For all measures, we used five-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (often) to assess students’ responses.

The empirical equation model shows a good fit to the theoretical model structure (χ2 = 1260,27; df = 685; χ2/df = 1,84; p ≤ .001; RMSEA = .038 [.035–.042]; CFI = .93; TLI = .93). The results provide evidence that students’ attitudes towards peers with social-emotional disabilities can be explained by their perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards peers with disabilities (beta = .43; p ≤ .001) and their own contact experiences (beta = .45; p ≤ .001). However, students’ empathy does not significantly predict their attitudes toward peers with social-emotional disabilities (beta = -.01; p = .84). Overall, these factors account for 56% of the variance in students’ attitudes. The model also shows significant effects of students’ empathy (beta = .62; p ≤ .001) and their perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards peers with disabilities (beta = .16; p ≤ .01) on their supportive behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities. Contrary to our expectations, students’ contact experiences do not significantly predict their supportive behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities (beta = .08; p = .07). These variables explain 54% of the variance in students’ supportive behaviour. Finally, students’ empathy is significantly predicted by both students’ contact experiences (beta = .15; p ≤ .001) and their perceptions of teachers’ behaviour towards peers with disabilities (beta = .26; p ≤ .001) with an explained variance of 14%. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of teachers’ behaviour towards students with disabilities in developing students’ positive attitudes and supportive behaviour towards peers with social-emotional disabilities and their empathy. Especially, teachers should be aware that they act as important role models and social referents for their students when dealing with children with disabilities and that students’ attitudes and supportive behaviour towards their peers with disabilities are likely to be influenced by their perceptions of these behaviours.

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