Abstract

This theoretical (not empirical) paper aims to present and explain organisational learning and supervision in the school context. In particular, the article seeks to identify current and future fields of research that are also relevant in the European and international context. Both the structural and cultural aspects that support this process are emphasised. A central focus is on teachers' reflection, learning, and professional development, whereby supervision is described as a helpful format for promoting these processes. School leaders are key in driving innovation and learning processes within the school. The text also underlines the importance of creating a conducive environment and adapting structures to ensure sustainable school development. Finally, further research questions and desiderata are emphasised to strengthen and optimise schools as learning organisations.

Organisational Learning

Organisational learning in the school context has its roots in institutional school development research, which emphasises the process character of school and organisational development (Dalin, 2004). A central element here is the dimension of the organisational structure, which supports the transfer of knowledge within the school through framework conditions such as time slots and institutionalised teams. Teachers' skills and cooperation with the staff are considered essential starting points. Common objectives, unifying values and their evaluation are important prerequisites for successful organisational learning.

School development is understood as an internal process that the members of the organisation support. Change cannot be prescribed but must be designed as a learning process. This involves individual and collective learning processes that expand the organisation's knowledge and behavioural repertoire. Organisational learning is reflected in integrating structural and cultural changes, such as establishing communication and work structures or dealing with mistakes.

Teachers act as organisation members by reflexively linking practice and scientific knowledge. Professional development occurs when teachers reflect on their lessons in a targeted and long-term manner. This reflection process, characterised by uncertainties and unpredictability, enables a constant adaptation and further development of one's actions (Altrichter et al., 2018). John Dewey (1933) already described reflection as conscious thinking in a chain of thoughts that leads to new insights. Donald Schön (1983) expands this with the idea of the "reflective practitioner", who deals with uncertainty by combining experiences, theories and new strategies. The link between reflection and action forms the basis for the professionalisation of teachers (Wong & Lee-Piggott, 2021). Formats like action research offer practical approaches to cope with uncertainties and promote reflection skills (Semathong, 2023).

School leaders are central to organisational learning processes, influencing school culture, structure and development processes. Their actions are strongly linked to the promotion of innovation processes, the institutionalisation of positive developments and the facilitation of teacher cooperation. School principals act on three levels: the macro level (legal requirements), the meso level (framework conditions of the individual school) and the micro level (pedagogical leeway) (Bonsen, 2016). These levels are in a field of tension between autonomy and control. Leadership is seen as an emergent phenomenon that is not tied to individual people but arises in the interaction of all organisational members. This allows teachers to take responsibility and actively shape decisions (Schratz et al., 2016).

Organisational learning is manifested by changes in organisational culture and behavioural potential that last over time and are independent of individuals. The prerequisites are formal work structures, a trusting working atmosphere, cooperation and a conducive learning culture. School leaders drive school development by creating conditions that promote individual, collective and organisational learning processes (Bonsen, 2016).

Supervision Supervision is a counselling format for the professional professionalisation of individuals, groups and organisations (Krall, 2008). It clarifies and organises professional tasks and goals through reflection and broadening perspectives. This creates an awareness of alternatives without striving for a predefined result. Supervision is based on various theoretical approaches, including psychoanalytic (Kutter, 2017), integrative (Perls, 2019), and systemic approaches (Luhmann, 2004). In schools, supervision contributes to the professionalisation of teachers by promoting reflection on teaching activities and supporting the handling of uncertainties. Teachers reflect on their practice, strengthening their competence and contributing to the organisation's development. Supervision can help to promote individual learning processes and improve cooperation within the school by reflecting on professional activity (Macfadyen et al., 2020). Leadership supervision is a unique format that helps managers reflect on their roles and tasks and promote organisational learning processes. By reflecting on leadership actions, school principals can act as a source of inspiration for school development processes and promote cooperation within the staff. School leaders have a key role to play as they coordinate the learning processes of the entire organisation and thus have a lasting influence on the school's learning culture (Schlee, 2012). Systemic supervision is based on communicative processes in which knowledge is built up through structures, action patterns and routines. These processes enable dynamic alignment with existing models and promote individual and collective learning. Learning is described as the further development of proven patterns of interpretation, whereby changes in the organisational culture become visible through the adaptation of patterns. Supervision supports learning on an individual level, in a team, and within the entire organisation. It promotes learning through reflection and communication, positively impacting the organisation (Schibli & Supersaxo, 2009). Systemic supervision reflects, in particular, the reality constructs of the members of the organisation and their perspectives on their actions about the organisation and its environment (Schibli & Supersaxo, 2009). Learning is not only an individual but also a social and communicative process. These processes can initiate changes in an organisation's organisational knowledge, behaviour, and action-guiding values.

Conclusions Further research is needed to validate and optimise the effectiveness of these approaches under different frameworks and against different national and cultural backgrounds. The following questions offer possible starting points: • How can school leaders use supervision to promote staff collaboration and collective professional learning? • To what extent does systemic supervision contribute to changing internal organisational structures and school development? • How do different educational policy frameworks affect the implementation and success of supervision and organisational learning? • What cultural differences must be considered when designing supervision and organisational learning in international or multicultural school settings? • How can integrating digital technologies into supervision processes promote reflection and professional learning in schools? The following desiderata offer concrete approaches to promote the further development of schools as professional learning organisations: • Development of instruments for systematically measuring the effectiveness of reflection and supervision processes in schools. • Promoting interdisciplinary and international cooperation to gain new perspectives on the connection between reflection, supervision and school development. • Development of training opportunities for school leaders to strengthen their role as actors in organisational learning processes and supervision. • Expansion of international research projects investigating the effects of different school and educational cultures on organisational and professional learning. • In-depth studies on the conditions in the European and international context necessary to sustain school innovation processes. • Research the challenges and opportunities of hybrid working models for school learning and professional development. These questions and desiderata open up a wide range of research fields and practical approaches that can support schools on their way as learning organisations. We look forward to discussing these and further aspects during the conference session.

Altrichter, H., Posch, P. & Spann, H. (2018). Lehrerinnen und Lehrer erforschen ihren Unterricht [Teachers Research Their Teaching]. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Bonsen, M. (2016). Schulleitung und Führung in der Schule [School management and leadership in the school]. In H. Altrichter & K. Maag Merki (Eds.), Handbuch Neue Steuerung im Schulsystem (S. 301–323). Wiesbaden: Springer VS. Dalin, P. (2004). School Development. Theories and Strategies. An International Handbook. London. New York: Continuum. Dewey, J. (1933). How we Think. A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Chicago: Henry Regnery. Krall, H. (2008). Supervision und Coaching zwischen Praxisberatung und Praxisforschung – forschen und beraten, was der Fall ist [Supervise and coach between practice consulting and practice research – research and advise on what the case is]. In H. Krall, E. Mikula & W. Jansche (Eds.), Supervision und Coaching, Praxisforschung und Beratung im Sozial- und Bildungsbereich (S. 16–26). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Kutter, P. (2017). Spiegelphänomene in der Supervision [Mirror phenomena in supervision]. In H. Pühl (Eds.), Das aktuelle Handbuch der Supervision. Grundlagen – Praxis – Perspektiven (S. 81–94). Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag. Luhmann, N (2004). Einführung in die Systemtheorie [Introduction to Systems Theory]. In D. Baecker (Eds.), Einführung in die Systemtheorie (2. Aufl.). Heidelberg: Carl-Auer-Systeme. Macfadyen, A., English, C., & Coates, M. (2020). Articulating and developing supervisory skills through collaborative action research. International Journal for Academic Development, 25(4), 324–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2020.1726760 Perls, F. S. (2019). Grundlagen der Gestalt-Therapie: Einführung und Sitzungsprotokolle [Fundamentals of Gestalt Therapy: Introduction and Minutes of Sessions ]. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. Schibli, S. & Supersaxo, S. (2009). Einführung in die Supervision [Introduction to supervision]. Berlin: Haupt Berne. Schlee, J. (2012). Kollegiale Beratung und Supervision für pädagogische Berufe. Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe. Ein Arbeitsbuch [Collegial counselling and supervision for pedagogical professions. Help for self-help. Ein Arbeitsbuch]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Schratz, M., et al. (2016). Schulleitung im Wandel: Anforderungen an eine ergebnisorientierte Führungskultur [School Leadership in Transition: Requirements for a Results-Oriented Leadership Culture]. In M. Bruneforth, et al. (Eds.), Nationaler Bildungsbericht Österreich 2015. Band 2. Fokussierte Analysen bildungspolitischer Schwerpunktthemen (S. 221–262). Graz: Leykam. Semathong, S. (2023). Participatory action research to develop the teachers on classroom action research. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 11(3), 29–36. Wong, J., & Lee-Piggott, R. (2021). A clinical supervision intervention in questioning: An action research study. Educational Action Research, 30(2), 313–334.