Internationally, the number of paraprofessionals (or support agents) in schools has been steadily increasing in line with the development of inclusive education and across contexts there seem to be various models and concepts for organising assistance and support. With the development of inclusive education, a transformative demand is made on student participation in schools – legally founded in the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In the agenda to transform schools and education towards inclusion, there is an international trend towards responding to the assumed heterogeneity of learners with a plurality of (para)professional roles within school staff. Although countries and cultures differ greatly in their social, cultural and political practices, paraprofessional support roles have received particular attention from a transnational perspective, especially due to the increase in their numbers, e.g. in Finland (Takala, 2007) or the UK (Butt & Lowe, 2012). It can be stated that paraprofessionals are ‘in-betweens’, as there are extremely different expectations placed on this role. Therefore, it becomes evident that paraprofessionals play a critical role in the implementation of an inclusive reform agenda.

Against this background, this two-country research project asks how the practice of support agents has developed within their formal framework conditions. The two countries involved, Iceland and Germany (Baden-Württemberg), are positioned as examples of significant difference in terms of school systems (comprehensive/selective and how inclusive education has been implemented which presents an interesting comparison.

Research shows that, on the one hand, paraprofessionals have become an international phenomenon as far as their use in inclusive schools is concerned and, on the other hand, their practice, despite different concepts and models, is characterized by the fundamental ambivalence of special attention and the simultaneous potential risk of stigmatization (Giangreco, 2013; Köpfer & Tan, 2023; Webster & Blatchford, 2013). While the number of studies on the matter is now quite broad, it can nevertheless be stated that few studies focus on the practice of paraprofessionals, and how they can carry that out against the background of the existing framework of practice conditions (Butt, 2016; Giangreco, 2010; Rutherford, 2012; Webster et al., 2010). 

In this research, we therefore continue to address this desideratum and ask how paraprofessionals in Icelandic and German schools have developed their practice before the backdrop of their formal framework – mainly focusing on the relation between teachers and paraprofessionals. The theoretical framework employed is Abbott’s professionalization theory (1988) which offers a comprehensive and dynamic framework for understanding the evolution, competition, and structure of professions in society. It emphasizes that professional boundaries are fluid and shaped by historical, social, and economic factors.

In this qualitative research, empirical interviews were employed to compare the practices of paraprofessionals in Iceland and Germany. The specific focus of the interviews was on how support agents work in Icelandic and German schools and how they shape their role in practice against the background of the expectations placed on them (e.g. by the teacher, job description, responsibility for the child). In 2023, 18 interviews in total were conducted at Icelandic and German schools. Since the school system in Germany is the responsibility of the so-called federal states, we selected the state of Baden-Württemberg in Germany as the level of comparison with Iceland. The sample of interviewees was characterized by the fact that the majority of those interviewed were support agents who were at the time also students in teacher education. The problem-centred interviews (Witzel, 2000) were each conducted in the national language (German and Icelandic) and translated into English for the joint evaluation, which was carried out in the sense of communicative validation. The interviews were analysed using the documentary method of text interpretation (Bohnsack 2021) – with the aim of identifying the support agents’ conjunctive spaces of experience in their relationship with teachers as well as students. The findings are presented and discussed in terms of Abbott’s professionalization theory (1988).

Using Abbott’s professionalisation theory (1988) as a lens, this study sheds light on the positioning and practices of paraprofessionals in Iceland and Germany (Baden-Württemberg) within the broader system of professions in schools. Abbott’s framework highlights the fluidity of professional boundaries, the competition for jurisdiction, and the role of paraprofessionals as “in-between” actors navigating contested spaces between the teaching profession, administrative frameworks, and learners’ needs. Findings reveal that paraprofessionals in both countries experience similar dilemmas related to their professional roles, such as navigating the balance between closeness and distance with learners and between heteronomy and autonomy in their relationships with teachers. These tensions reflect the ambiguous positioning of paraprofessionals, whose responsibilities often overlap with those of teachers but lack formal recognition within school hierarchies. This duality positions them as essential agents of inclusion while constraining their professional agency. One notable theme emerging from the research is the paraprofessionals’ goal of fostering learner independence. Support agents in both contexts strive to create environments where learners can engage autonomously, highlighting their critical role in inclusive education. However, systemic constraints and unclear jurisdiction compel them to balance enabling independence with maintaining proximity to address immediate challenges. Another theme centres on the relationship between support agents and teachers. Abbott’s theory emphasizes professional competition and status, evident in the hierarchical dynamics within schools. In both countries, paraprofessionals report a lack of recognition from teachers, which results in uncooperative relationships. This sometimes pushes paraprofessionals to develop autonomous practices, carving out informal niches within the school system. However, this autonomy underscores systemic ambiguity surrounding their roles and professional boundaries. By applying Abbott’s professionalisation theory, this study highlights the need for structural reform to clarify paraprofessionals’ roles, enhance their legitimacy, and promote cross-sector collaboration. These measures are essential for addressing tensions and supporting inclusive practices in diverse educational contexts.

Abbott, A. (1988). The system of professions: An essay on the division of expert labor. University of Chicago Press. Bohnsack, R. (2021). Rekonstruktive Sozialforschung. [Reconstructive Social Research]. Barbara Budrich. Butt, R. & Lowe, K. (2012). Teaching assistants and class teachers. Differing perceptions, role confusion and the benefits of skills-based training. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(2), 207–219. Giangreco, M. F. (2010). One-to-one paraprofessionals for learners with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Is conventional wisdom wrong? Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-48.1.1 Giangreco, M. F. (2013). Teacher assistant supports in inclusive schools: research, practices and alternatives. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 37(2), 93–106, https://doi.org/10.1017/jse.2013.1 Köpfer, A. & Tan, R. (2023). Between support and stigmatization – international comparative perspectives on paraprofessional practices in inclusive schools. In: Elizabeth J. Done, & Helen Knowler (Eds.), International Perspectives on Exclusionary Pressures in Education. MacMillan Rutherford, Gill (2012). In, out or somewhere in between? Disabled learners’ and teacher aides’ experiences of school. International Journal of Inclusive Education 16(8): 757–774, https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2010.509818 Sharma, U. & Salend, S. J. (2016). Teaching assistants in inclusive classrooms: A Systematic analysis of the international research. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(8), 118–134. Takala, Marjatta (2007). The work of classroom assistants in special and mainstream education in Finland. British Journal of Special Education, 34(1), 50–57. Webster, Rob; Blatchford, Peter; Bassett, Paul; Brown, Penelope; Martin, Clare & Russell, Antony (2010). Double standards and first principles: Framing teaching assistant support for pupils with special educational needs. European Journal of Special Needs Education 25(4), 319–336. doi:10.1080/08856257.2010.513533. Witzel, Andreas (2000). Das problemzentrierte Interview [The problem-centered interview]. Forum: Qualitative Sozialforschung 1(1), Art 22.