This scoping review examines the development and application of sustainability competence frameworks in secondary education worldwide, identifying key trends and challenges. By analyzing 2,659 peer-reviewed publications from 2003 to 2023 through a multi-stage screening process, the study provides a comprehensive assessment of how sustainability competencies are conceptualized and implemented in educational settings. A qualitative clustering of the literature reveals two primary perspectives: one emphasizing transversal competencies applicable across diverse educational contexts, including national policies, global educational guidelines, various subject areas, and innovative teaching methods, and another focusing on specific frameworks that address the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of sustainability.

The study is guided by three key research questions: which types of competencies are discussed and evaluated in the selected articles, what settings or backgrounds influence the emergence of competence frameworks, and how competence frameworks for secondary schools differ from those in other areas, such as higher education. These questions help frame an analysis that contributes to evaluating existing knowledge in the field, providing a structured summary of current studies, and identifying areas for future research. The review highlights a global consensus on the importance of competencies such as critical thinking, systems thinking, and action competence, which are essential for preparing secondary students to address sustainability challenges. It also underscores the need for a holistic approach that integrates cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, reflecting international educational frameworks such as those promoted by UNESCO and OECD.

Despite this consensus, the study identifies a research bias, with a predominance of studies originating from Europe, particularly Germany and Sweden. This highlights the need for increased regional diversity and collaboration to ensure that sustainability competence frameworks are adaptable to different educational and cultural contexts. The findings suggest that while there is growing agreement on the key competencies required for sustainability education, variations exist in how these are integrated into curricula, teaching methodologies, and institutional policies across different regions. The review also distinguishes between competence frameworks in secondary education and those in higher education, noting differences in complexity, depth, and skill application.

The methodological approach employed ensures a rigorous evaluation of sustainability competencies in secondary education by categorizing perspectives, identifying overarching patterns, and assessing gaps in existing research. The findings suggest that while international frameworks provide a strong foundation for competence development, their implementation varies depending on national policies, institutional settings, and pedagogical approaches. The study further calls for broader interdisciplinary collaboration and increased research efforts beyond the European context to create more inclusive and adaptable competence frameworks for sustainability education.

To address the research questions, a scoping review was conducted, following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Scoping review was selected due to the type of this broad research inquiry, as it clarifies concepts, identifies trends, and explores gaps in the literature without imposing strict quality standards on the included studies. A systematic search of Web of Science, ERIC, and Google Scholar was performed for publications from January 1995 to March 2024. Search terms covered sustainability competencies, education for sustainable development (ESD), and secondary education. The inclusion criteria focused on publications discussing competence frameworks relevant to secondary schools, aligning with the global push for sustainability education following the 1992 Earth Summit. The initial sample of 2,659 publications underwent multi-stage screening. First, duplicates (n = 120), non-peer-reviewed papers (n = 424), literature reviews (n = 47), and non-educational studies (n = 519) were removed, reducing the pool to 1,549. A preliminary screening of titles further narrowed the selection, excluding 1,328 papers. The remaining 221 were reviewed based on keywords and abstracts, resulting in 86 papers for full-text analysis. Additional exclusion criteria refined the final sample. Studies focusing on teacher competencies, singular sustainability skills (e.g., creativity, futures literacy), or general ESD methods were excluded. The review prioritized studies discussing sustainability competence models specifically designed for secondary education. Papers exploring students' perceptions of sustainability issues, rather than their competencies as learning outcomes, were also excluded. Following full-text examination, 30 papers were selected for expert review. Two ESD experts assessed the selection, leading to the inclusion of five additional articles to enhance comprehensiveness. The final dataset comprised 35 studies—30 in English and five in German—providing a structured foundation for evaluating sustainability competence frameworks in secondary education.

This scoping review identified two dominant perspectives in contemporary research on sustainability competencies in secondary school education. The first, found in over two-thirds of the papers (n = 26), views sustainability competencies as transversal skills categorized into five groups: those derived from conceptual research, specific subject areas, national curricula, global educational guidelines (e.g., UNESCO, OECD), and those facilitated through innovative teaching approaches such as project-based learning, authentic learning, and self-assessment. The second perspective conceptualizes sustainability competencies as a framework emphasizing cognitive, affective-motivational, and behavioral aspects, including agency and collective decision-making. While the first perspective is widely represented across 19 countries, the second is primarily found in Sweden, Germany, and Denmark, with limited contributions from outside Europe. The study highlights a growing emphasis on sustainability competencies in national and global education policies, particularly in Germany and Sweden, where established academic traditions and institutional resources support the development, measurement, and assessment of ESD initiatives. Notably, 15 papers align with national curriculum frameworks or global education policies, a trend more common in studies from Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America, whereas European and American research tends to synthesize existing conceptual models. Conceptual research dominates the field, reflecting the need for theoretical frameworks, but the presence of experimental studies (69% of the sample) indicates progress in assessing sustainability competencies. However, challenges remain in adapting competence frameworks across diverse cultural and educational settings, underscoring the need for further cross-national collaboration and research beyond English-language publications.

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