Groundwater is an invisible but vital fundament of the water supplies of humanity as it represents 98% of the Earth's mobilizable freshwater resources. It is, therefore, a particular problem that, given its hidden nature and apparent inexhaustibility, public knowledge about groundwater is limited (Bhunia,  Shit, & Brahma, 2023), while as a result of over-pumping and climate change, our groundwater resources have been severely depleted in several areas of the world. With the diminishing availability of water for household, agricultural and industrial use, society needs to know more about groundwater flow systems and water retention solutions (Mádl-Szőnyi et al., 2023). There are several methods for the latter, the most prominent of which is the use of subsurface space in terms of storage capacity. This is the basis for Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) engineering solutions that aim at the intentional water replenishment of aquifers for later abstraction or to achieve environmental benefits (Dillon & Arshad, 2016).

The present research is being carried out as part of the ClimEx-PE (Climate Extremes buffering through groundwater flow-based Managed Aquifer Recharge and Public Engagement) project of the European Partnership – Water4All funding programme. The project develops Nature-Based MAR solutions based on the NaBa-MAR© ELTE concept (ClimEX-PE n.d.) that integrates MAR methods and groundwater flow systems for comprehensive landscape-scale water replenishment. In this way, not only the storage capacity of aquifers is considered, but it also takes advantage of systematic groundwater movement in the design of water retention. Namely, the naturally moving groundwater transports water from recharge to discharge areas, creating shortage and surplus in water conditions (Tóth, 2009). Thus, on landscape-scale, the moving groundwater can also mitigate unbalanced water conditions in more distant areas. Applying these methods heavily relies on understanding the new dynamic paradigm (Czauner et al., 2022)  of the description of groundwater flow systems, as in the former artesian paradigm, groundwater bodies are described as water bodies separated by impermeable layers, which do not allow the flow of water between different areas.

The project aims to have an impact on multidisciplinary fields. In the natural scientific field, it develops a Nature-Based MAR methodology, while in social sciences, it facilitates scientifically based public policy and decision-making. However, the key to the successful application of MAR methods is not only the professional aspects but also active stakeholder engagement and public acceptance. Nevertheless, general knowledge about groundwater is minimal, especially regarding MAR and Nature-Based MAR options. Therefore, the third pillar of the project is to increase i) public knowledge of groundwater and MAR and ii) stakeholder acceptance of MAR and Nature-Based MAR methods. 

In this context, as the first step of the complex educational research and development process, the public knowledge and opinion systems related to groundwater will be investigated on a nationally representative sample in Hungary.  The presentation aims to give an overview of the main results of this survey and demonstrate how these results will serve as an evidence base (Van der Vleuten et al., 2000) for developing targeted educational materials and interventions adapted to the knowledge gaps and aspects of MAR and Nature-Based  MAR methods facing low public acceptance. These educational materials and techniques will be tested and improved in the project's later phases.

The research was financed under the 2022 Joint call of the European Partnership 101060874 — Water4All and the 2023-1.2.2-HE_PARTNERSÉG-2023-00005 that has been implemented with the support provided by the Ministry of Culture and Innovation of Hungary from the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund, financed under the 2023-1.2.2-HE_PARTNERSÉG funding scheme.

The approximately 15-minute online questionnaire for the research was completed by a Hungarian adult sample (N=1,000), representative of age, gender, region, and educational level. The participants within the quotas were provided with a link by a polling company, SEDO Research Ltd. Although the participants were directly addressed, they answered voluntarily. Before the completion, they read the description of the research and the informed consent form and could accept participation in the case of their consent. The completion was anonymous. 3,298 people answered the call of the polling company, and 2,298 were eliminated because they did not fit quota requirements, did not consent to participate in the study, or failed the attention checks. The questionnaire contained items of the Hungarian version of the 2-MEV Scale (Mónus, 2021) targeting general environmental attitudes and own questions on the latent relationship with the neighbourhood where the participant lives, the knowledge and attitudes about groundwater, the responsible stakeholders for protecting the national groundwater, the knowledge and attitudes about targeted forms of groundwater recharge, the sources of the groundwater knowledge related to old, artesian paradigm and modern, dynamic paradigm terms, and, finally, demographic characteristics. The research was conducted with the ethical permission of the Research Ethics Committee of ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Faculty of Education and Psychology. The data of our cross-sectional research have been subjected to an explorative analysis, which targeted the descriptives of knowledge and attitudes about groundwater and its recharge forms and revealed the possible associations of this knowledge and attitudes with other examined factors.

The expected outcomes of the research include an overview of the general public knowledge about groundwater issues and the acceptance of different MAR solutions. The data collection was completed in the second half of January 2025. Here, we only mention two main preliminary results. Regarding public knowledge about groundwater issues, preliminary data analyses show that although some simple basic elements of the new dynamic paradigm of the description of groundwater systems are present in the public perception of groundwater systems, the old artesian paradigm still dominates the public understanding of groundwater systems. Precise identification of these public conceptions and misconceptions about groundwater and MAR solutions will be a key outcome of the research. From a hydrogeological point of view, the shift in society from thinking based on the old aquifer and aquiclude artesian paradigm to thinking in the new, dynamic groundwater flow system paradigm will also be traced. On the other hand, the research explores the extent to which different targeted forms of groundwater recharge are accepted in Hungary and what cognitive, sociological and psychological factors influence their acceptance. Preliminary correlation analyses suggest that general environmental attitudes, place of residence, and level of education are not related to the acceptance of MAR solutions; however, the latent relationship with the neighbourhood where the person lives is positively associated with it. The final results of the analyses will contribute to planning the next research steps and developing communication and educational materials. The main message of the present study's results for this development work is that a special focus should be placed on promoting the system-level understanding of groundwater flow systems and on emphasising local aspects, taking into consideration the role of the psychological relationship with the neighbourhood. These might be key success factors in developing effective groundwater-related communication and educational materials.

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