Vocational Education and Training (VET) is closely linked to labour market and  has been providing learners with technical skills applied in diverse occupations. However, the increasing complexity of societal challenges – from digital transformation to rising social polarisation and rising populist movements across Europe (Mudde, 2019) – necessitates a broader educational approach to incorporate non-cognitive skills, including citizenship competences. Van de Werfhorst (2017) argues VET learners have statistically significantly lower levels of political engagement than their peers in academic programmes. Research also shows that educational programmes addressing transversal competences not only prepare individuals to meet labour market demands but also enable them to participate actively and responsibly in civic life (Cinque & Kippels, 2023 ). Therefore it is important to support VET-learners’ democratic experiences and develop them as democratic citizens.

Developing democratic citizenship competencies is particularly challenging in VET. Citizenship competences often receive limited attention in VET compared to the general and higher education sectors (Council of Europe, 2024).   The development of democratic citizenship for VET learners poses challenges. This should be a joint effort of key stakeholders, such as VET schools and employers. Many employers might prioritize immediate business needs, and skills required for current production cycles. While this approach helps maintain the relevance of VET programmes in the short term, it can limit the development of broader competences – such as critical thinking, adaptability, or democratic citizenship – that are essential for long-term social resilience.

Approaches to integrating democratic citizenship within VET differ significantly across Europe, reflecting the influence of diverse national policies, educational traditions, and cultural attitudes toward civic education (Salaj, 2024).  Our understanding of democratic citizenship is grounded in the Council of Europe Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education, which defines education for democratic citizenship as: ‘education, training, awareness-raising, information, practices and activities which aim, by equipping learners with knowledge, skills and understanding and developing their attitudes and behaviour, to empower them to exercise and defend their democratic rights and responsibilities in society, to value diversity and to play an active part in democratic life,’ (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 14).

Some countries have established frameworks that embed citizenship competences in their VET systems (Norway and Denmark), while others remain in the early stages of focusing on these issues (Hungary, Albania and Moldova). By drawing on examples from a number of European countries such as England, Norway, Poland, Scotland, and Sweden, the presentations will discuss  three key dimensions – a) assessment and curriculum, b) inclusion, and c) VET learners’ participation.  Through our discussion, we aim to contribute to both the practical and theoretical understanding of citizenship education in the broad sense.  This symposium, aims to address the following broad research questions:

1. How is democratic citizenship being developed in IVET in Europe?
2. How is this built into policy development and interpreted in practice? 

Our methodology involved desk-based research and documentary analysis through content analysis. The examples reflect the diversity of VET systems in the European countries that will be considered in relation to established typologies of VET (Pilz, 2016 and Busemeyer & Trampusch 2012). For example, England and Scotland  represent liberal market economies with decentralised VET systems where the market plays a dominant role in shaping educational priorities. The systems in Sweden and Norway are rooted in strong social democratic traditions, where citizenship education is often a natural extension of broader policies promoting social equity and inclusion. Poland’s recent history of political transformation adds a layer of complexity in promoting democratic values within VET. Our analysis draws on findings from a Council of Europe project in which the contributors to this symposium played an active role.

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