Ethnic identity is most commonly defined as a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic group (Phinney, 1990). It is a multidimensional and dynamic process which entails clarity in terms of ethnic background, emotional significance of belonging to a particular ethnic group and activities undertaken to explore one’s own ethnicity (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Syed, 2015). Ethnic identity development is most intense during adolescence and emerging adulthood, traditionally studied using quantitative, self-report measures. However, growing recognition of multiple intersecting and overlapping contexts in which young people navigate their identities highlights the need for a more comprehensive approach (Ignjatović et al., 2024). Ethnic identity formation can thus be understood through Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model, which emphasizes the interplay between individual characteristics and environmental contexts, such as family, peer groups, educational institutions, and broader societal influences (Brofenbrenner, 1979). Building on this idea, Cooper (1990) emphasizes that development should not be examined in isolation but rather within the dynamic interactions between the child/adolescent and their surrounding environments.

In the last two decades, the role of schools has been receiving more research attention. Studies have initially focused on the extent to which the proportion of different ethnic/racial groups in a particular school influences adolescents’ ethnic identities (Umana-Taylor, 2003). However, studies show that what happens in schools and the way students construe different aspects of their respective educational contexts may be more important for understanding the developmental process (Way et al., 2008). Adolescents’ ethnic identity exploration is promoted when cultural heritage of different groups is incorporated by curricula, leading to open discussions about ethnic diversity and sustained student engagement (Branch, 2020). In other words, learning about one’s own ethnic roots is facilitated by understanding the backgrounds of others, engaging in dialogue and sharing experiences about ethnic/racial histories, thus actively supporting and enriching the identity development process for all students involved. Additionally, the social hierarchy of students within the school and the quality of peer and student-teacher relationships seem to play a crucial role. Adolescents’ ethnic/racial identity shapes positive social relationships with peers, but the nature of this process is reciprocal; having more ethnically and racially diverse friendship groups has been shown to promote increased ethnic/racial identity exploration among students (Rivas-Drake et al., 2019). At the same time, schools’ promotion of multicultural practices enhance interethnic relationships and provide students with opportunities to engage in meaningful dialogues that contribute to their own identity development (Banks, 2015). Providing structured and informal opportunities for interactions between different groups foster mutual understanding, reduce prejudice, and support students’ feelings of ethnic belonging and pride. On the other hand, ethnic/racial discrimination by teachers and peers has a pronounced negative impact on the ways in which adolescents experience their personal and social identities. The relationship between  ethnic identity development and the school context has not been extensively studied in Serbia.

The aim of the current study was to examine the ways in which the Serbian school context —encompassing factors such as the curriculum, extracurricular activities, peer and student-teacher relationships — shapes adolescents' ethnic identity and the quality of their interethnic relationships.  The study also compared the experiences of the majority group (Serbs) with those of the highly marginalized minority ethnic group (Roma).

This study was conducted as part of the project “Narrativization of Ethnic Identities of Adolescents from Culturally Dominant and Minority Backgrounds, and the Role of the School Context” (NIdEA), supported by the Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia (grant number 1518). In alignment with the research objective, a qualitative research methodology was adopted to examine personal experiences of ethnic identity development. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews. A tailored interview guide was developed for the purposes of the study, to systematically address several key dimensions: the significance of various adolescent identities (social, religious, ethnic, etc.), memories of situations where ethnic identity became salient, the perceived importance of ethnic identity, its relationship with other identity aspects, the promotion of ethnic identity within the school setting, multicultural practices in schools, and experiences of discrimination—both personal and those of peers. Interviews had an average duration of 40 minutes and were conducted on-site, at participants' respective schools. To maintain a setting conducive to open dialogue, male researchers conducted interviews with male students, and female researchers with female students. Additionally, interviewers shared the same ethnic background as the participants to foster rapport and cultural understanding. School selection was guided by two criteria: (1) the inclusion of both grammar schools and vocational secondary schools, and (2) variation in educational institutions based on the recognized quality of pedagogical practices. The final sample included seven schools across five cities from different regions of Serbia, with 28 students participating in the study. The study participants were first- and third-year high-school students (average age 17.1 years, 11 female). Among the 28 participants, 17 belonged to the majority ethnic group (Serbs), 10 were from a minority ethnic group (Roma), and one student had a mixed ethnic background. Following transcription and entry into MAXQDA, an inductive thematic analysis was conducted (Boyatzis, 1998).

In general, students did not place an emphasis on schools as a contributing factor in ethnic identity development or interethnic relations. In total, we identified five themes related to this topic. 'Curriculum as means of ethnic identity development' relates to students’ experience of becoming aware or consolidating their ethnic identity through content presented in school classes (particularly history or Serbian language). 'Extracurricular activities for ethnic identity exploration' relates to opportunities to learn and connect to one’s cultural heritage by joining field trips, visiting museums and historical landmarks. These two themes were exclusively present in Serbian students’ answers, while the next two were only reported by Roma students. 'Peer discrimination' involves negative experiences of Roma youth in their classrooms from an early age. Negative comments, isolation and bullying were sometimes defined as the first moments of awareness of their Roma ethnicity. 'Teacher discrimination' includes implicit prejudices or direct comments regarding Roma students’ lower cognitive abilities or inappropriateness. In both of the themes, participants perceived schools as unaware or unwilling to resolve the issue. Rather than educational institutions, both Serbian and Roma adolescents primarily saw the media and broader societal structures as having a potential role in garnering tolerance and understanding. 'School as playground for interethnic interaction' relates to students’ ideas about how schools could improve the relations between culturally diverse groups, through joint activities, sharing the classroom or following teachers’ positive, anti-discriminatory attitude toward ethnic minorities. Our results imply that Serbian high-schools should focus on implementing multicultural practices to a greater extent through curriculum and extracurricular activities, which currently exclude Roma cultural heritage. School staff must work towards recognizing and urgently reacting to ethnic discrimination to mitigate the harmful effects on identity development and well-being. Lastly, educational institutions should take part in actively fostering interethnic relations, by promoting dialog and collaboration.

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