Over the past decades, the growing number of individuals pursuing doctoral degrees has significantly altered employment landscapes and reshaped the perception of what it means to hold a PhD (Horta, 2018). For early-career researchers, establishing a career in academia has become increasingly challenging, as they face limited job opportunities (Hnatkova et al., 2022). A clear of example of this is China, where a sharp increase in PhD graduates has not been met with a proportional increase in academic positions. In 2023, only 75,000 PhD graduates, including both domestic PhDs and PhD returnees, were able to secure academic roles in this country (Ministry of Education of China, 2023). Therefore, it is necessary to analyse the factors influencing PhD graduates’ employment outcomes and to develop strategies that can help secure academic positions.

When examining the factors influencing employment outcomes, the concept of capital (Bourdieu, 1978, 1986) often emerges. Tomlinson (2017) has explored various forms of capital that affect graduate employability in Western contexts, while Yan and Mao (2015) have investigated the role of social capital in graduate employment in China. Despite this, prior research has not sufficiently examined the employment outcomes of PhD graduates from the perspective of capital, particularly within the Chinese academic labour market, which exhibits distinct differences from those of many other countries. For instance, PhD graduates entering the Chinese academic job market face unique challenges, such as guanxi (social networks) system, which holds significant weight within Chinese academia (Xu, 2022). Additionally, unlike in some Western countries, publication productivity serves as a crucial recruitment criterion in Chinese academia (Yang & You, 2018).

This study examines the distinct characteristics of China’s highly competitive academic labour market and aims to develop a holistic model to showcase the various forms of capital that contribute to the employment outcomes of PhD graduates. The study is guided by two central questions:

1. What forms of capital influence PhD graduates’ academic employment outcomes in China?
2. How do these different forms of capital influence PhD graduates’ academic employment outcomes in China?

The study integrates Bourdieu’s (1986) social capital theory and Tomlinson’s (2017) graduate capital model, presenting a holistic understanding of employability that extends beyond the Western context. Bourdieu’s framework identifies economic, cultural, and social capitals as pivotal in determining individual agency within the academic field. Meanwhile, Tomlinson’s graduate capital model expands this by including psychological and identity capitals as vital for navigating career trajectories. This combined theoretical framework facilitates a critical exploration and a holistic model of how Chinese PhD graduates leverage capital to secure academic positions. Furthermore, it allows for a comparative lens with European contexts, where academic networks, mobility programs (e.g. Erasmus+), and transdisciplinary research initiatives play similar roles in enhancing graduate employability (Boulos, 2016; Croce & Ghignoni, 2024; Hnatkova et al., 2022).

The study’s significance lies in its ability to contextualize educational research within the global academic job market while addressing regional particularities. By analysing capital dynamics, it maps out different factors PhD graduates need to consider when seeking employment. Additionally, it offers perspectives for existing doctoral programs about how to better prepare doctoral candidates for future academic employment, emphasising global applicability. The findings hold relevance for European educational research, particularly in understanding how regional disparities, mobility, and collaborative networks impact employability, thereby fostering a dialogue between Chinese and European academic systems.

This research employs a qualitative approach underpinned by hermeneutic phenomenology (Van Manen, 2023) to capture the lived experiences of PhD graduates in China’s academic labour market. This approach aligns with the rationale of Brown and Danaher (2019), who advocate for fostering emergent conversations around broad topics rather than rigid queries, allowing for a deeper understanding of participants’ insights. The flexibility of this approach also allowed for adjustments to the interview process, accommodating the evolution of research questions while maintaining focus on predetermined themes (Ruslin et al., 2022). Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with 27 participants, comprising 11 domestic PhDs and 16 PhD returnees from overseas institutions, who are currently employed at prestigious higher education institutions in mainland China. Participants were recruited using convenience and snowball sampling techniques, ensuring diverse representation across disciplines and institutional types. The interview questions were designed to explore participants’ academic job-seeking journeys, focusing on their perceptions and mobilization of various forms of capital. All interviews were carried out in Mandarin and conducted online, with each lasting between one and two hours. Recordings were made with participants’ consent, and all data were anonymized to ensure confidentiality. For data analysis, we employed a hybrid inductive-deductive approach to discover and interpret meaningful themes (Clarke & Braun, 2017). We began with transcribing the records using an automated transcription application, followed by a thorough manual review. Next, the data was uploaded into N-Vivo 12.0 for coding. Since the goal was to explore the different forms of capital influencing participants’ employment outcomes, we initially coded the data deductively according to Tomlinson’s (2017) graduate capital model, using the forms of capital involved in the model as parent nodes. During the process, we identified ‘fortune’ that did not fit within the predetermined parent nodes. So, the new node ‘fortune’ was developed to facilitate an inductive exploration of emerging patterns. Subsequently, we repeatedly reviewed the interview transcriptions, breaking the data into smaller segments (i.e., a word, single sentence, or paragraph) for annotation and coding. Key themes such as professional knowledge, social relations, and resilience were identified and coded as child nodes. Once the code scheme was established, we highlighted noteworthy expressions within each child node to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the data.

The analysis identified five forms of capital as influential in the employment outcomes of PhD graduates in the Chinese academic labour market: scientific and technical human capital, social capital, cultural capital, economic capital, psychological capital. Our analysis also revealed that fortune, or good luck, played a role in PhD graduates’ job attainment, a factor often overlooked in academic career development literature. Based on the findings, we constructed a capital dynamics model for PhDs’ academic employment in China by integrating the different forms of capital and fortune, with the aim to support PhD graduates to navigate the Chinese academic labour market. Among these, scientific and technical human capital, social capital, and cultural capital serve as the primary factors, while the other three function as auxiliary factors. Key insights include: 1. Scientific and Technical Human Capital: Expertise and research productivity are paramount, emerging as the most crucial internal resource for securing employment. 2. Social Capital: The guanxi system, encompassing relationships with supervisors and academic networks, facilitates access to job opportunities and insider knowledge. 3. Cultural Capital: Academic credentials and publication prestige significantly influence employability, alongside tacit cultural competencies. 4. Economic Capital: Family financial support and institutional policies on housing and subsidies play crucial roles in career decision-making. 5. Psychological Capital: Resilience, adaptability, and self-efficacy enable graduates to navigate a competitive and uncertain job market. 6. Fortune: Chance events, such as unexpected policy shifts or job openings, underscore the importance of readiness and adaptability. The study offers actionable insights for policymakers, academic institutions, and graduates themselves. The proposed model not only presents how PhD graduates navigate the academic job market but also informs strategies for enhancing employability in the increasingly uncertain and interconnected global labour markets, fostering dialogue with European educational research on the influence of capitals in academic employability.

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