Students' academic motivation, particularly their intrinsic motivation for learning, has been well-documented to decline as students progressing throughout compulsory schooling (e.g., Spinath & Steinmayr, 2012; von Davier et al., 2024). Research shows that the steepness of this motivational decline varies across subjects, but mathematics stands out as particularly affected (e.g., Wigfield et al., 2006). The decline raises concerns since intrinsic motivation is closely linked to greater engagement, deeper learning, learning self-efficacy, and improved academic achievement (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000; Taylor et al., 2014; OECD, 2024).       
              Beyond motivation, other key aspects of engagement with mathematics also deteriorate over time. Students' confidence in their mathematical abilities declines, as do feelings of enjoyment and pride in learning mathematics, while anxiety and boredom tend to increase (Ahmed et al., 2013; von Davier et al., 2024; Radišić et al., 2025). This downward trajectory in the elements of learning and engagement is accompanied by a decline in learning outcomes. TIMSS data show a slowdown in the development of mathematical competencies throughout compulsory education, with the percentage of students reaching each benchmark decreasing from 4th to 8th grade in many European countries and on average (von Davier et al., 2024). Another indication of the decline comes from a comparison of TIMSS and PISA findings. Specifically, some countries, such as Bulgaria, Cyprus, Latvia, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey, show high average levels of students math competence in 4th grade as seen in TIMSS results but fall below average by the end of compulsory education as shown in PISA (von Davier et al., 2024; OECD, 2023). The decline results in around 30% of students worldwide leaving compulsory education failing to reach the basic level of mathematical literacy. Beyond shaping mathematical competence, intrinsic motivation and perceived competence in mathematics influence students' career aspirations in math-related fields (Lazarides & Watt, 2017). Given the fundamental role of mathematical skills in various professions, daily life, and scientific and technological progress, efforts to address this decline remain a priority in mathematics education research.  
              Studies indicate that teachers can mitigate the developmental decline in motivation and other elements of engagement. Evidence (e.g., Pedler et al., 2020; Tomaszewski et al., 2022) highlights the critical role of teaching strategies and the implementation of interactive and constructivist approaches and techniques such as flipped classrooms or group work. Authors emphasize the role of supportive learning environments, meaningful feedback, and the importance of teacher-student relationships. These strategies not only address the cognitive aspects of learning but also the emotional and social dimensions, ensuring students feel valued, competent, and motivated to persist in mathematics. Integration of strategies like formative assessments and differentiated instruction are also found important. Studies also show that aspects of students' engagement are related to teachers' beliefs, mindset, and attitudes (e.g., Pedler et al., 2020; 2022; Thayer, 2020). For example, teachers who hold positive, growth-oriented beliefs about their students' abilities being more likely to foster high levels of engagement.

              The goal of this study is to enhance the existing body of research by exploring how teachers can effectively sustain students' engagement in mathematics. While previous studies have identified various teaching strategies linked to different aspects of engagement, much of the evidence stems from isolated correlational research, with limited exploration into how specific teaching practices and teachers' beliefs interact to shape student engagement. This study bridges this gap by providing a more comprehensive analysis of teaching practices, by comparing the practices of teachers whose students show a decline in engagement over time with those whose students maintain or improve their engagement in mathematics.

The study is a part of a larger project - Co-constructing mathematics motivation in primary education - A longitudinal study in six European countries. The study is based on interviews with six class teachers, all females, who were carefully selected from a larger sample of teachers. The section goal was to single out teachers whose students maintained or even improved in terms of motivation, competence appraisals, and emotions related to learning mathematics and those teachers whose students experienced the greatest decline in terms of these indicators over one school year. Improvements and declines are assessed for 61 classes using longitudinal data from 1122 students. A composite measure of students’ interest value, perceived competence in mathematics and the feeling of enjoyment while learning mathematics was calculated for two timepoints – at the end of grade 3 and at the end of grade 4 as a class average. Information on the scales and questionnaires can be found elsewhere (Blažanin et al., 2025). The difference between two timepoint, i.e. the one-year change - was used as a dependent variable in a regression analysis, while the composite measure in the grade 3 (initial level), the number of students in the class and the average SES of the class were used as predictors. The residuals were interpreted as the change of students’ motivation, math self-confidence, and enjoyment, that is in the engagement, that could be explained by the teacher-related factors. Based on the results, three teachers with the highest and the lowest residuals, i.e. the biggest and smallest drop in the students’ engagement, were invited to the interviews. The first group of teachers we call Engagement-Suppressing teachers and the second - Engagement-Sustaining teachers. The interviews were semi-structured. Discussions about teachers’ approaches in maintaining students’ engagement were prompted by vignettes representing different types of students. The vignettes were made based on the students’ profile emerging from the project data. Using the examples given in the vignettes, teachers were asked about their typical and recommended practices and approaches to students succeeding and struggling in mathematics. Interviews lasted about 30 minutes and were transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were analyzed on the principles of inductive reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Coding scheme encompassing 36 codes emerged from an iterative process. Codes were analyise to construct overarching themes highlighting different approaches to students. Segments from intervirews of the Engagement-Suppressing teachers and the Engagement-Sustaining teachers were contrasted and qualitatively compared.

Although the interview focused on the behavioral aspects of teaching—what teachers do, recommend as effective, or consider ineffective or detrimental—the beliefs underlying these practices also emerged. Our results revealed that Engagement-Sustaining Teachers and Engagement-Suppressing Teachers differ in their teaching approaches, mindset regarding mathematics abilities, their expectations of their students and students’ parents, their attitude towards mathematics, and in their vision of a good student. Some aspects of these themes were present in both groups of teachers’ statements, while others were exclusive to each. Both groups of teachers emphasized the importance of utilizing teaching approaches stemming from constructivist tradition, such as organizing work in pairs, developing game-based activities and utilizing technology in a way that will enable active engagement of students in math lessons. Motivation-Suppressing Teachers, but not the other group, held more pessimistic expectations of students struggling with mathematics, exhibiting a fixed mindset and a lack of will to support them. They assume shared responsibility for students achievement with parents, held a view on mathematics as a difficult subject and seemed themselves disengaged and burnt out. Motivation-Sustaining Teachers but not the other group highlighted the need for an individualized approach to each students’ interests and needs. Compared to the other group, their examples of interactive teaching strategies were richer and more elaborate. They showed perseverance and positive expectations when working with any type of students regardless of their competence level, showing a growth mindset. They displayed a more positive attitude towards mathematics and teaching, suggesting that they themselves are more engaged in teaching mathematics than Engagement-Suppressing teachers. The findings suggest that although Engagement-Suppressing teachers rely on certain practices considered effective in maintaining engagement, their impact on students results from a combination of all teachers' actions, which seem to work best when the teacher themself is engaged.

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