Session Information
99 ERC SES 03 K, ICT in Education and Training
Paper Session
Contribution
The integration of digitization in classrooms is reshaping teaching and learning methods, presenting new opportunities and challenges. Digital technologies offer the potential to expand the classroom's boundaries and connect it with the outside world (Gerholz, Ciolek & Wagner 2020). However, alongside these benefits, challenges arise, such as the increased and simultaneous use of media by contemporary students, leading to reduced attention and performance (Qian & Li 2017; Bolkan & Griffin 2017). The accessibility of digital tools like smartphones and tablets tempts students to engage in non-class-related activities during lessons (Kay, Benzimra & Li 2017). A study found that Generation Z students spend 19.4% of their school day on off-task mobile use, disrupting learning (McCoy, 2020). Teachers often resort to measures like deactivating Wi-Fi, blocking websites, or using monitoring apps, but these can hinder participation and motivation. Such tactics also limit the potential of digital educational technologies, making them counterproductive. Cell phone bans and digital monitoring are not effective. Instead, efforts should focus on enhancing active participation and learning engagement to prevent off-task behaviour (Flanigan et al., 2023). Previous studies have investigated off-task behaviour of learners in various educational contexts to identify factors that contribute to digital distraction. A comprehensive literature review was undertaken to encapsulate the diverse findings in this domain, culminating in the formulation of a cohesive model. The identified factors coalesce into three principal categories, each delineating distinct perspectives on the observed phenomenon. Primarily, the model underscores the significance of teaching quality dimensions, including the establishment of a conducive classroom climate and proficient classroom management. Empirical evidence attests that considerations of these quality dimensions yield enhanced learning outcomes on multiple instances (Praetorius et al. 2020; Kounin 1970; Qian & Li 2017; Kay, Benzimra & Li 2017). The maximization of effective learning time is intricately linked to the mitigation of unproductive learning time, typified by the aforementioned off-task behaviors (Fried 2008). To investigate off-task behaviour, it is also useful to consider the learner's perspective. The teacher should take into account individual learning prerequisites when designing lessons, along with planning methods and social forms. These prerequisites comprise of students' self-efficacy, motivation, and emotional states during learning (Pekrun 2006). Such factors emerge as predictive indicators for less off-task behaviour (Flanigan et al. 2023). In addition, the instructional design of the classroom can extend the amount of time spent on the task. Collaborative and interactive work phases can foster active engagement with the learning content (Kay, Benzimra & Li 2017). Furthermore, the quality of the integration of digital technologies is of great importance in achieving meaningful utilization. If digital technologies are used only as a replacement for traditional media, there is often no identifiable added value. However, increased integration has shown positive outcomes in terms of technology acceptance and motivation to learn (Gerholz, Ciolek & Wagner 2020. Therefore, it can be argued that purposeful use of technology in the classroom can lead to fewer off-task activities (Kay & Lauricella 2011). Preventing off-task behaviour in a sustainable manner requires successful consideration of instructional design features, students' learning prerequisites, and teaching quality dimensions. It is important to note that these three lenses, which combine the different causes of off-task behaviour, should not be considered separately, as they are characterized by overlaps and interactions.
The key research questions for exploring digital off-task behaviours of students during class in several subjects are therefore as follows:
1. which factors lead to digital off-task behaviour of students in lessons at vocational schools with digital educational technologies?
2. which instructional design patterns can prevent off-task behaviour of students in lessons at vocational schools with digital educational technologies?
Method
This study employs a case study research methodology, which is suitable for analysing learning situations and lessons in a context-sensitive manner due to the special nature of multicriticality. Case study research has the advantage of being able to analyse complex mechanisms of action. The focus is on specific areas along propositions rather than the completeness of the survey of all factors. These propositions are based on theoretical and empirical findings, and inductively derived from the available study material. Method triangulation can further validate and generalize the results. Yin (2014) classifies case studies into four basic types based on two dimensions. The present study employs a multiple-case design, defining both several cases and several objects of analysis within the cases. The study's data set comprises 10 vocational schools in Germany. For each school, one class and one teacher were interviewed. The survey employed a quantitative questionnaire, as well as focus group and expert interviews. In addition, teaching materials were analysed in order to have a documentation of the teaching events. Following Yin's (2014) definition, a case is an object that is directly relevant to answering the research question. This study examines the class under investigation, which can be divided into several objects of analysis. These are defined by the teaching staff, the pupils, and the learning situation itself. The case study analysis takes into account the context of individual cases, which contains important implications for answering the research question. The present study focuses on off-task behaviour with and through digital educational technologies. A total of 155 VET-students and 10 teachers were interviewed about one specific teaching sequence per school, including the subjects mathematics, German, business administration, English and electrical engineering.
Expected Outcomes
The results of the study show that digital technologies bring with them an increased potential for distraction for learners. Compared to traditional lessons, learners state that they are increasingly distracted by the technologies and use them for activities unrelated to the lesson. However, the reasons that ultimately lead to off-task behaviour cannot be attributed solely to the presence of digital devices in the classroom. Rather, the analysis of the student survey revealed that the factors for this lie in features of the lesson design, such as low student activation or monotonous lessons. The teachers surveyed also mentioned aspects of pupils' individual learning requirements as a reason for off-task behaviour, such as a lack of motivation and willingness to make an effort. The question of how lessons should be designed so that off-task behaviour occurs less frequently is therefore not easy to answer. Rather, it depends on several factors that can influence each other. The results point to several design patterns that can curb the distraction potential of digital educational technologies. A positive teacher-student relationship, coupled with meaningful lesson topics and diverse integration of technologies can be presented here as an example of a promising design pattern.
References
Bolkan, S. & Griffin, D. J. (2017). Students’ use of cell phones in class for off-task behaviors: The indirect impact of instructors’ teaching behaviors through boredom and students’ attitudes. Communication Education, 66(3), 313–329. Flanigan, A.E., Brady, A.C., Dai, Y. & Ray, E. (2023). Managing Student Digital Distraction in the College Classroom: a Self-Determination Theory Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 35(60). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09780-y Fried, C. B. (2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50(3), 906–914. Gerholz, K., Ciolek, S., & Wagner, A.C. (2020). Digitalisation of Design Research – A case study to illustrate the use of digital technologies and tools for collaboration in Design Research projects. EDeR - Educational Design Research, 4(1), 1-17. Kay, R., Benzimra, D., & Li, J. (2017). Exploring Factors That Influence Technology-Based Distractions in Bring Your Own Device Classrooms. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 55(7), 974-995. Kay, R. H., & Lauricella, S. (2011). Exploring the benefits and challenges of using laptop computers in higher education classrooms: A formative analysis. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(1), 1–18. Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. McCoy, B.R. (2020). Gen Z and Digital Distractions in the Classroom: Student Classroom Use of Digital Devices for Non-Class Related Purposes. Faculty Publications, College of Journalism & Mass Communications. 116. URL: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/journalismfacpub/116, Last access: 29.01.2024. Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18 (4), 315-341. Praetorius, A.-K., Klieme, E., Kleickmann, T., Brunner, E., Lindmeier, A., Taut, S., Charalambous, C.(2020). Towards developing a theory of generic teaching quality. Origin, current status, and necessary next steps regarding the Three Basic Dimensions Model. In A.-K., Praetorius, J.,Grünkorn & E., Klieme (Eds.), Empirische Forschung zu Unterrichtsqualität. Theoretische Grundfragen und quantitative Modellierungen. (1. ed, pp. 15-36). Beltz Juventa. Qian, Y. & Li, L. (2017). Student Off-Task Electronic Multitasking Predictors: Scale Development and Validation. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 17(2), 53-73. Yin, R. K. (2014): Case Study Research. Design and Methods. 5. ed, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
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