In the 21st century, children are exposed to unfiltered media messages with widespread internet access at home and beyond (OECD, 2015). A major concern is that many children access media platforms and social media in violation of age limitations (Setyarini et al., 2024). This, in turn, requires the development of media literacy (hereinafter, ML) among both teachers and students (Hobbs et al., 2022). In educational settings, media literacy must foster the development of critical thinking and information literacy skills, which are key to lifelong learning (Potter, 2018). By incorporating media literacy education, schools enable students to identify misinformation and, hence, make informed decisions in today’s complex media landscape (Gjerazi, 2024). 

Teachers’ perceptions of media literacy

Media literacy (ML) is conceptualised as an interdisciplinary field bridging communication studies and education, emphasising competencies such as critical thinking, media production, and self-expression. It represents the convergence of theory and practice, fostering skills for analysing, evaluating, and creating media content (Turin & Frisen, 2020). Potter (2022) identifies six key dimensions of ML: skills, knowledge, beliefs, behaviours, motivations, and macro elements, each characterised by distinctive traits. Additionally, the European Union defines ML as encompassing advanced competencies in critical thinking, judgment, and analysis, as well as the ability to distinguish opinion from fact, transcending basic familiarity with tools and technologies (Weinand, 2018). Teachers' perceptions play an important role in understanding the complex relationships between their beliefs, instructional practices, and student outcomes (Akram et al., 2022; Yeleussiz, 2024). Teachers' beliefs about pedagogy, practice, and media literacy considerably affect their instructional choices, classroom interactions, and effectiveness as educators. Recognising these beliefs is essential for informing educational practices and policies, designing impactful professional development programmes, and creating supportive school environments that foster student learning (Schmitz et al., 2024). 

Promoting ML in schools 

Government promotion of ML in schools is crucial and requires comprehensive and sustained efforts (Meehan et al., 2015; Manfra & Holmes, 2020). Strategic investments in infrastructure, training, and policy frameworks are pivotal in empowering educators and fostering a media-literate citizenry. These efforts contribute to creating an educational environment that enhances students' critical thinking and equips them with analytical skills to navigate the complexities of the digital age (Orakova et al., 2024). Ongoing professional development and supportive policies can equip teachers with the tools necessary to incorporate ML into their classrooms effectively. Providing professional development opportunities about ML is essential, as teachers often struggle with curriculum demands that may lack study materials related to ML (Fraillon et al., 2020; Korona & Hutchison, 2023). This is particularly relevant in Kazakhstan, where geographical disparities might create barriers to traditional training programmes, especially for rural school teachers (Beikutova et al., 2024; Serikkhan et al., 2024).

This study aims to explore (1) the educators’ perceptions and practices in relation to media literacy and (2) its implementation into curricula in the developing context, of which Kazakhstan is one.  Addressing disparities in resources and educational tools between different school types and locations is essential (Zainuddin & Halili, 2016). Establishing conditions for ML can enable students to develop critical skills necessary for their academic achievement and lifelong success regardless of their economic backgrounds (Bulger & Davison, 2018). This study seeks to fill the gap in literature by examining the perceptions of educators and school leaders in Kazakhstan, which can provide a localised perspective that has been largely absent from the broader discourse. Consequently, this study aims to address the following research question:

RQ 1: How do educators perceive ML across diverse school settings in Kazakhstan? 

RQ 2: To what extent do the existing policies and practices promote ML diverse school settings in Kazakhstan?

The qualitative research was conducted in three secondary schools in the southern part of Kazakhstan during the 2023-2024 academic year, employing a school-based case study design to examine teachers’ and principals' perceptions of ML. This approach is particularly suitable for examining complex and context-dependent phenomena, allowing an in-depth understanding of participants’ experiences and beliefs (Creswell & Poth, 2017). A case study method enables detailed exploration of specific instances within educators’ real-life contexts (Yin, 2017). As a result, the data collection tools consisted of (1) focus groups with teachers, (2) interviews with school principals, and (3) a reflective research journal. The research involved 34 participants from Oblys school, Qala school, and Auyl school in Kazakhstan, selected through purposeful sampling to align with the research objectives. The participants included 31 EFL teachers and 3 school principals. One-to-one interviews were essential in obtaining an in-depth understanding of school conditions and policies employed to promote ML within schools. School principals are believed to play a pivotal role in fostering teacher collaboration and leadership (McLaughlin & Ayubayeva, 2015; Qanay & Frost, 2020). Therefore, the contextual insights provided by school principals were crucial in understanding school conditions (Johnson & Christensen, 2024). Their interview questions covered topics such as a general overview of the school, opportunities for teacher professional development, factors affecting ML development, ethical pedagogy in the era of social media, and the use of social media as a tool for learning (Algozzine & Hancock, 2017). The interviews were further complemented by focus group discussions with teachers, enabling data validation. Research journals were used to document and reflect on the researchers’ experiences, providing an avenue for self-awareness and a deeper understanding of their actions and responses to external factors (Holly, 2009). The research journal included details such as location, time, participants, organised events, and reflective questions (Fox et al., 2011). To ensure systematic documentation, a checklist was used to record information daily, with the recorded data later validated through other data collection tools (Morrison et al., 2012). Qualitative data analysis employed abductive coding (Pope et al., 2000). Thematic analysis followed six phases: (1) familiarisation with data, (2) generating codes, (3) identifying themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing a report (Braun & Clarke, 2024). All interviews were transcribed, coded, and categorised into themes using both inductive and deductive approaches (Elliott, 2018). Ethical considerations were rigorously maintained throughout the study.

The data analysis revealed two overarching themes: (1) perceptions of ML and (2) the impact of national policies. The first theme encompassed subcategories such as critical thinking, information filtering, digital skills, and how educators conceptualise and integrate ML into their teaching practices. The second theme centred on educators' awareness of ethical codes and how national ML policies are interpreted, adapted, and applied locally. Participants emphasised the importance of identifying false information and connecting media content to educational contexts. Overall, the majority of participants acknowledged and recognised ML as a critical competency in the digital age: ML is a skill that is necessary for everyone today. In our modern era, individuals cannot develop without the ability to search, receive, and differentiate information. Teachers must guide students in discerning truth from falsehood, particularly on social media (Teacher, Oblys school). This sentiment was echoed by the Qala school principal who noted that: ML is crucial in today’s digital world (School principal, Qala school). However, disparities in technical infrastructure create barriers to implementing these skills, particularly in rural contexts. The research participants highlighted a lack of familiarity with ethical codes and guidelines related to media usage and behaviour on social media. Teachers often acknowledged this gap, with one stating: We were not familiar with ethical codes or guidelines related to media usage. No instructions were provided from local educational departments regarding posting photos/videos of students on social networks (Teacher, Auyl school). This may indicate a disconnect between the national policy development and its local implementation. The research findings highlight several implications for facilitating ML in Kazakhstani schools. It is recommended that ML be formally integrated into the national curriculum across all subjects and grade levels to enhance educational outcomes.

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