Introduction

The "practice turn" in teacher education has established the teaching practicum as a crucial component for bridging theoretical knowledge and practical application within initial teacher education and early professional development (Reid, 2011; Mattsson et al., 2011). The practicum serves as an essential space where student teachers (STs) acquire real-world skills and knowledge, critical for their professional growth (Bjørndal et al., 2024; Orland-Barak & Wang, 2021). However, a persistent challenge in this context is the gap between the theoretical frameworks taught in universities and the practical teaching experience in schools (Allen & Wright, 2014; Stenberg et al., 2016). While existing studies have extensively explored the roles of university-based teacher educators (UBTEs) and school-based teacher educators (SBTEs), there is a noted paucity of research examining the enacted competencies of these educators within the practicum and their interaction in supporting practical learning (Vanassche, 2022; Masterson et al., 2024). Most studies adopt a 'blueprint perspective', aiming to establish competency frameworks rather than investigating actual mentoring practices and their effectiveness in situ (Kelchtermans, 2013; Garza et al., 2019).

Research Aim and Questions

This study aims to address these gaps by exploring the specific competencies enacted by UBTEs and SBTEs during the teaching practicum and understanding how these competencies interact to enhance STs' practical learning experiences. The guiding research quest

1) What mentoring competence that UBTEs and SBTEs enact during teaching practicum?

2) How UBTEs’ and SBTEs’ mentoring competence interact to support STs’ practical learning?

Conceptual framework

This study employs Transformative Learning (TL) theory as its theoretical lens, conceptualizing the teaching practicum as a transformative learning process where STs undergo significant transitions in their teaching beliefs, behaviors, and professional identities (Mezirow, 1991; Illeris, 2003). This transition is often precipitated by critical incidents that challenge their existing knowledge, leading to successful adaptations (Qin et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2020). A recent systematic review (Wang et al., 2025) define mentoring competence (MC) as the abilities mentors possess to facilitate transformative learning collaborations with mentees and constructed a conceptual framework based on TL. This has inspired our application of TL theory to refine the concept of MC further, emphasizing the comprehensive skill set that UBTEs and SBTEs employ to support STs. TL theory posits that learning involves reinterpreting individual experiences to construct meaning, a process central to all learning (Mezirow, 1991). This theory supports our investigation into the critical experiences perceived as meaningful by teacher educators in their mentoring roles. TL theory emphasizes that learning is multidimensional, incorporating cognitive, social, and emotional elements (Illeris, 2003). These dimensions collectively enhance mentorship by enriching mentors' knowledge and skills, fostering effective communication and adaptability, and regulating emotions to motivate and stabilize mental states (Illeris, 2003, 2004). Building on the framework by Wang et al., (2025) and the existing literature, we have developed a theory-informed coding template to systematically analyze qualitative data on MC. This template categorizes MC into cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions, which involve building pedagogical understanding, facilitating mentoring relationships, and managing emotional challenges within the STs' professional journeys, respectively.

Methods In our study, we focus on the mentoring competencies of UBTEs and SBTEs across various Finnish teacher training institutions. Our research involves nine UBTEs and eight SBTEs, selected using heterogeneous sampling to reflect a broad range of experiences and backgrounds, ensuring diverse perspectives on mentoring practices (Patton, 2015). Data were primarily collected through two rounds of interviews, conducted in English, with one exception in Finnish. Each interview lasted approximately 67 minutes, was digitally recorded, and transcribed verbatim for accuracy. The interviews were structured to explore two types of experiences deemed crucial by the participants: successful mentoring strategies and challenges faced during practicums. This approach was informed by transformative learning (TL) theory, which guided the design of the semi-structured interviews and the mind map stimulated discussions in the second round (Wheeldon & Ahlberg, 2019). The mind map tool was chosen for its effectiveness in helping participants articulate in-depth experiences and visualize connections between concepts, enhancing the recall and description of specific mentoring behaviors (Janczukowicz & Rees, 2017). For data analysis, we employed a hybrid method combining deductive and inductive thematic analysis. This began with the creation of a theory-driven coding template, based on TL principles and the conceptual framework of MC, to identify relevant data excerpts (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The initial round of coding was tested for reliability, with ongoing adjustments made through discussion and triangulation among researchers. Following this, we moved to an inductive approach, summarizing and categorizing initial codes to generate themes that capture the essence of MC enacted by the educators (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Our methodology not only aligns with theoretical frameworks but also adapts to the empirical insights gathered, ensuring a robust analysis of the data. This approach aims to provide a clear evidence trail, enhancing the credibility of our findings and contributing to a deeper understanding of mentoring competencies within Finnish teacher education.

Findings Drawing from our qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews with UBTEs and SBTEs, this study identifies and categorizes the MC that effectively support STs’ practical learning across three core dimensions: cognitive, social, and emotional. Cognitive MC reflects the integration of theory and practice, a crucial element for effective teaching. UBTEs and SBTEs demonstrated competence in linking pedagogical theories with classroom realities, facilitating STs' understanding and application of these concepts. This was particularly evident in their ability to foster question-oriented discussions during feedback sessions, which helped STs reflect critically on their practices. Additionally, educators combined demonstrations and joint problem-solving activities, reinforcing the practical application of theoretical knowledge. Social MC involves fostering relationships within the educational ecosystem, crucial for STs' professional development and integration into school communities. Educators excelled in bonding STs with peers, parents, and mentors, adapting their roles to meet the diverse needs of STs. This competence was instrumental in helping STs navigate the complex social dynamics of schools, thereby enhancing their professional confidence and integration. Emotional MC addresses the emotional demands of teaching. UBTEs and SBTEs were adept at recognizing and responding to STs' emotional needs, providing timely counseling and support. This aspect of mentoring is vital in managing the stress, anxiety, and emotional challenges that STs often face during their practicums, fostering resilience and a positive professional identity. The study also highlighted how these competencies interact to provide a comprehensive support system for STs. The cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of MC are interlinked, each reinforcing the others to create a holistic mentoring approach that addresses the multifaceted nature of teaching. This interaction is particularly evident in the joint efforts of UBTEs and SBTEs to support STs' transitions from academic settings to practical, real-world teaching environments.

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