The use of evidence in policy-making has a long history, traceable to Weiss' 1977 study on social research in policy development. Recently, countries seeking to improve education systems have renewed focus on evidence-based approaches. Wiseman (2010) notes an increased emphasis on research evidence in education policy, driven by higher stakes and emerging networks dedicated to translating research into decision-making.

At national levels, organizations within education departments, research councils, and independent agencies now serve as brokers for research translation. International organizations like the OECD, World Bank, and UNESCO have established programs to influence national education systems' engagement with research evidence. Examples include the OECD's 'Strengthening the Impact of Education Research' project, the Evidence Informed Policy and Practice in Education in Europe network, and the KIX network. The EU has similarly adopted guidelines and support structures through its Science for Policy agenda.

However, integrating research into policy-making remains challenging. Policy evidence is highly context-specific, and national education systems vary significantly. While classroom teaching and learning approaches share some global similarities, macro-level structural policies differ dramatically across countries. Curricula, school accountability, teacher recruitment, and funding mechanisms vary widely, meaning successful interventions in one country may not translate directly to another.

The use of research and evidence to inform policy making is thus not straightforward and complicated further by the fact that conceptualizations of ‘research’, ‘evidence’ and ‘policy’ also vary (Cairney, 2016; Pellegrini & Vivanet, 2020). Some conceptualizations emphasize the evaluative role of research in ensuring evidence informs policy decisions (Davies, 1999), while others highlight the increasingly complex role of research in understanding the systems, conditions, histories, and considerations which guide policy processes, as well as the related mechanisms, decisions, and outcomes (Scanlon, et al., 2022). This paper focuses on the EU agenda to promote evidence-informed policy in education:

How is the use of research and evidence for policy-making in education conceptualized by the EU (what, who, how and enabling conditions)?

And how is the EU trying to promote this agenda in its member states?

Drawing on Campbell and Ehren's (2024) framework, the study examines four key themes:

1. Research and Evidence in Education Policy: what counts as ‘research’ and ‘evidence’? What areas and education sectors are prioritized or ignored in the Science for Policy agenda and why? (WHAT)
2. Actors and stakeholders in research/evidence-informed policy-making: who is expected to produce and/or use research and evidence as part of the policy process? (WHO)
3. Processes of research and evidence generation and use for policy-making: how are types of knowledge (research/evidence) expected to be used in the development and implementation of education policy? How are various actors expected to generate meaningful knowledge for policy (e.g in co-creation, through knowledge brokers)? (HOW)
4. Systemic conditions and a knowledge infrastructure: how are relevant actors and stakeholders positioned and capacitated in the policy process and wider education system /to support evidence-informed policymaking? (Enabling conditions)

We analysed EU policy texts to identify the conceptualisations of research and evidence for policymaking, both on the EU level and how the EU promotes the use of research and evidence by its member states, including the underlying purposes, processes and outcomes that are associated with and assumed to emerge from these conceptualisations for specific stakeholders and communities. Our analysis starts with the first (2006) Communication from the European Commission to member states which stressed the importance of' effective long-term policies, be based on solid evidence’. It ended with the 2024 EU Council conclusions on promoting evidence-informed policy and practice in education and training to achieve the European Education Area. In addition, we analysed mission statements and terms of reference of the working groups and wider initiatives and platforms (including LearningLab, the Education Gateway) that were set up in the meantime to promote the use of research and evidence in education policy. These were summarized in the Eurydice (2017) report on ‘Support mechanisms for evidence-based policy- making in education’. Our methodology for text analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) five stage process in analysing key EU policy texts: • An initial reading of the key policy texts; • The identification of key words, patterns and themes arising with segments of text selected; • Labelling of selected segments of text using descriptive coding; • The collation of the descriptive codes into broader themes; and • Based on the interpreted relationship, the overarching dimensions of collaboration as understood in these key policy texts, were created. We validated and supplemented our policy analysis through interviews with key officials from the EU education working committees and education directorate.

Given the principle of subsidiarity underpinning EU policy in education, the EU has limited authority to regulate the use of research and evidence in its member states. Its strategy to promote country’s Science for Policy agenda therefore relies on learning and exchanging good practice through building European monitoring systems and setting up working groups. As the Eurydice report on ‘Support mechanisms for evidence-based policy- making in education’ outlines, ‘the working groups cover the various fields of education, from early childhood education and care (ECEC) to higher education, as well as adult learning and transversal key competences. Their primary focus is to assist Member States in furthering policy development through mutual learning and the identification of good practice, as well as understanding what works in education’ (p.5). One of the values underpinning the EU Science for Policy agenda has been ’inclusive education’ where policy is broadly interpreted as ‘efforts’ at the national, regional, and local level, including education and training institutions. We compare the agenda and approach to those of other international organisations, notable the OECD, UNESCO and the World Bank.

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