Children's out-of-school time has undergone significant changes, becoming more structured (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). Many children attend various clubs, sections, and additional activities, which reduces the time for free play and unstructured leisure (Polivanova et al., 2016). This affects the development of children and their academic performance (Larson & Verma, 1999), with both positive and negative consequences (Larson & Verma, 1999), as excessive involvement can negatively impact emotional well-being (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). 

Organized activities have a positive impact on cognitive and non-cognitive development. By participating in out-of-school activities, a child expands their educational space and gains new experiences (Polivanova et al., 2016), increases self-confidence (Bartko & Eccles, 2003), gains socialization experience, develops initiative (Abbott & Barber, 2007), is less involved in destructive activities (Holland & Andre, 1987), improves academic performance (Coulangeon, 2018), and engagement in the learning process (Eccles et al., 2003). This type of activity is particularly important for adolescents from socioeconomically disadvantaged families, helping them to reduce gaps in academic achievement.

The effects of unstructured time are diverse. Serious leisure (reading, hobbies, sports)(Stebbins, 2017) is positively associated with academic performance (Abbott & Barber, 2007). Ordinary leisure (walks, games, TV viewing) can replace productive activity and be a cause of deviant behavior (Dumais, 2008). At the same time, unstructured time develops the emotional sphere and social skills (Palou et al., 2024), allows the child to demonstrate independence (Abbott & Barber, 2007) and rest from academic workload (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006).

Out-of-school time depends on the socioeconomic status and cultural capital of the family, as well as the place of residence, which creates unequal opportunities for extracurricular development (Ivanov & Kosaretsky, 2021). Children from families with high income and parental education have more opportunities for organized activities and more productive unstructured activities (Ivanov & Kosaretsky, 2021). In rural areas, there are fewer conditions for such activities (Kosaretsky et al., 2019). Inequality in access to quality out-of-school time can lead to differences in academic performance (Meier et al., 2018) and unequal chances of success in the future. Children from high-SES families and living in cities receive additional advantages in the development of skills and motivation, which exacerbates social inequality.

Given the impact of out-of-school time on the development of children and adolescents, time can be considered as a form of capital (Larson & Verma, 1999), which is used to form children's human potential (Latova, 2019), which is especially relevant in childhood, when the return on investments in productive time is highest (Heckman, 2008).

Despite research on children's time budgets, the structure of time as a unified concept often remains unattended. Most studies focus on individual aspects of extracurricular activities or causes of inequality. Understanding the structure of time is important for academic discussion and school practice, allowing to assess the impact of different types of activities on academic performance in different sociodemographic conditions.

This study attempts to assess the effects of participation in extracurricular activities of children in grades 4-11, living in urban and rural areas, from families of different socioeconomic status, on academic performance. The relationship between the structure of out-of-school time and academic performance is analyzed in terms of socioeconomic status and place of residence of children.

The empirical basis of the study is the data from an online survey of Russian students in grades 4-11, in which 3,427 students participated (2,803 from urban areas and 624 from rural areas). A two-stage stratification was used based on the characteristics of the child's place of residence (urban/rural) and grade level. The structure of the student questionnaire contains questions divided into three main groups: socio-demographic data, including questions about age, gender, grade level, family composition, and parental education; data on students' extracurricular time (participation in clubs and sections, time spent on activities, participation in tutoring sessions; information on the structure and distribution of time on unstructured practices). These questions allow for an assessment of the structure of the child's extracurricular time. The third group of questions includes self-reports on academic performance. The data collection procedure: the research tool consists of a questionnaire that is filled out online by students in grades 4-11. The student survey is conducted in several 30-minute sessions, which helped to reduce the burden on the child. A quantitative study was conducted using descriptive analytics, correlation and linear regression analysis. The dependent variable in the regression model is academic performance, expressed as the average grade in mathematics, Russian language, foreign language, literature, and science (biology). The independent variables represent time spent on organized activities per week and travel time to them, time spent on unstructured practices during the day: serious leisure, casual leisure, homework, and household chores. Control variables: SES (expressed through parental education), place of residence (rural or urban), gender, and age.

The results demonstrate significant differences in the structure of extracurricular time among schoolchildren depending on the SES of the family and place of living. Students from high-SES families spend an average more than 4 hours per week on organized extracurricular activities, while children from low-SES families spend only about 2 hours. This inequality in access to structured extracurricular activities may exacerbate existing educational disparities, as participation in such activities contributes to the development of cognitive and non-cognitive skills that positively influence academic performance. At the same time, differences in time structure were also found in relation to unstructured practices. Schoolchildren with high SES and living in the city are more involved in serious leisure practices that contribute to skill development and require more effort, while ordinary leisure activities are more pronounced among schoolchildren from low-SES families. Rural schoolchildren significantly more often help their parents with household chores, which is dictated by the living conditions outside the urban environment. Furthermore, the study revealed the influence of various elements of the extracurricular time structure on students' academic performance. Urban students and schoolchildren from higher-SES families are more involved in activities associated with higher academic achievement compared to schoolchildren from low-SES families or living in rural areas. Longer organized time and time spent on serious leisure are statistically significantly associated with higher grades, which confirms the role of time as capital for the development of children and adolescents. The obtained results emphasize the importance of creating conditions for the involvement of all students, regardless of their SES and place of residence, in organized extracurricular activities and the creation of conditions for serious leisure among schoolchildren. This can contribute to the equalization of educational opportunities and the accumulation of human potential, which in the long term can lead to a reduction in social inequality.

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