The rapid integration of digital technologies into daily life has significantly transformed the educational landscape, offering students unparalleled access to information, communication, and learning resources. However, alongside these opportunities come considerable online risks, including cyberbullying, privacy breaches, and exposure to harmful content (Stoilova et al., 2021). Given the increasing vulnerability of students in the digital environment, promoting digital literacy has become essential to equip young individuals with the skills necessary to navigate online spaces safely and responsibly (Purnama et al., 2021).

Digital literacy extends beyond technical proficiency, encompassing critical thinking, ethical engagement, and an awareness of online risks (Tomczyk, 2020). While educational institutions play a crucial role in fostering these skills, research suggests that interventions involving both schools and families are more effective in enhancing students' digital resilience (Champion et al., 2019; Guillén-Gámez et al., 2024). Parents, as primary influencers of children’s internet behaviours, have a significant role in reinforcing safe online practices, yet they often lack the necessary guidance and training to provide effective digital mediation (Nascimbeni & Vosloo, 2019). Consequently, schools have been increasingly encouraged to implement intervention strategies that actively involve families in digital literacy education (Finkelhor et al., 2021).

Despite growing awareness of the need for digital safety education, studies indicate disparities in the implementation of intervention programs across different educational levels (Sağlam et al., 2023). Secondary education schools tend to be more proactive in adopting structured digital literacy initiatives compared to primary and preschool settings, likely due to the assumption that older students face greater online risks (Chung et al., 2019; Smahel et al., 2020). Additionally, while digital literacy efforts aim to be inclusive, existing research suggests that teacher gender does not significantly influence the strategies employed in digital literacy instruction (Tomczyk, 2020).

Many schools, however, still lack comprehensive intervention programs that effectively integrate parents into the digital literacy education framework. Research has shown that parental mediation significantly impacts students’ online safety behaviours, yet existing school programmes often focus exclusively on classroom instruction rather than a holistic approach that includes family engagement (Stormshak et al., 2024). This gap in intervention strategies underscores the need for educational institutions to develop more structured and inclusive programs that bridge the digital literacy divide between schools and families.

The aim of this study was to explore school and teacher-led interventions designed to help families prevent and manage students' Internet risks. The research addressed the following questions:

1)      Do schools develop intervention plans involving families for the prevention and management of online risks? If so, what types of interventions do they implement?

2)      Are there significant differences between primary and secondary education schools in the implementation of family intervention plans?

3)      What parental mediation strategies do teachers recommend to their students’ families?

4)      Do teachers’ recommendations for mediation strategies vary based on the educational level they teach or their gender?

By addressing these objectives, the study contributes to the broader discourse on digital literacy education and online risk prevention, emphasizing the need for comprehensive school-family partnerships in fostering digital resilience among students.

Participants The sample consisted of 277 teachers from primary (38.3%, n = 106) and secondary (61.7%, n = 171) schools randomly selected from various Spanish regions. Among them, 22.9% (n = 63) held positions in school management, 67.6% (n = 186) worked as tutors or classroom teachers, and 9.5% (n =26) were members of the educational support team, which included school counsellors, special education professionals, and speech and language therapists. Most participants were women (66.4%, n = 184), with an average age of 44.15 years (SD = 9.68). Their teaching experience varied from 1 to 45 years, with a mean of 14.88 years (SD = 9.81). Instruments The Teacher Mediation of Internet Risks in Schools questionnaire was designed to gather data on school and teacher mediation strategies for preventing and managing online risks. It consisted of the following sections: (a) Socio-demographic information: this included details such as gender, age, years of teaching experience, and educational level taught, (b) School interventions with families: participants indicated whether their schools implemented intervention plans aimed at helping families prevent and manage online risks for their children (yes/no). They also specified the types of interventions provided, such as booklets with recommendations, online training, or activities organised by the parents' association. (c) Teacher mediation strategies for online risks: teachers rated how frequently they recommended various strategies to families for managing online risks, using a five-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always). The scale demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s Alpha of .98. Procedure A quantitative, cross-sectional survey design was used for this study. Ethical approval was granted from the Ethics Committee of the University of Alicante, Spain (Ref. UA-2022-10-28). Surveys were sent to selected schools, accompanied by prepaid return envelopes, with a request for completion within one month. A reminder email was sent two weeks later. The survey took approximately 8 minutes to complete. Participants were informed of the study's purpose, guaranteed their confidentiality, and asked to provide informed consent. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse and compare the teachers' responses. The significance level was set at p < .05.

Schools lack sufficient intervention plans to help families prevent online risks. Only 42.6% of participants reported that their schools had implemented specific interventions, with significant differences between primary (54.7%) and secondary schools (35.1%) [χ2 (1, n = 277) = 9.524, p = .002, phi = .193]. Most interventions involved activities organised by parents' associations (43.2%), family talks (42.4%), and distributing recommendation booklets (27.1%). Only 11% of participants reported online parental training. Teachers frequently recommended parent to limit children’s Internet time (61.4%), help with online issues (55.6%), teach appropriate online behaviour (56%), and discuss suitable websites (54.9%). Conversely, less recommended strategies included encouraging children to explore and learn independently online (19.5%) and engaging in online activities together (24.2%). Significant differences emerged based on education level and gender. Primary school teachers were more likely to recommend all strategies (p < .05). Female teachers advised parents to monitor Internet browsing history and social media more frequently than male teachers. The findings highlight the lack of comprehensive school-based interventions for families, especially in secondary education. Existing initiatives have limited reach, leaving many without guidance. Teachers focus on supervision (monitoring use and restricting access) over guided exploration and digital literacy. While protective, this approach may not fully equip students to navigate online spaces responsibly (UNICEF, 2024). Strengthening secondary education interventions is key, as older students face greater online risks. Expanding online parental training could offer families accessible resources for safer Internet use. A balanced approach, combining supervision and digital education, could foster responsible online behaviour (Finkelhor et al., 2021). Developing standardised school-family digital literacy programmes across European countries could bridge the existing gaps in parental involvement in online risk prevention. A unified European framework, aligned with evidence-based models, would enhance digital resilience and ensure consistent access to family-focused interventions (Stormshak et al., 2024).

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