The unequal access to the internet and digital technologies remains a global challenge, particularly in educational contexts where digital literacy is increasingly essential for academic and social success (Ismail et al., 2020). In regular schools, teachers play a pivotal role in promoting the safe and effective use of technologies, both as tools for learning and as means of protecting students from online risks (Smahel et al., 2020). This process is influenced by teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy perceptions regarding the use of digital resources and their integration into pedagogical practices (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2022).

The introduction of digital technologies into classrooms generates significant opportunities, such as access to high-quality information, the development of digital competencies, participation in virtual communities, and the use of e-learning platforms (Skantz-Åberg et al., 2022). However, these opportunities are accompanied by risks inherent to online interactions. These risks include those related to content (e.g., exposure to inappropriate material such as violence or pornography), contact (e.g., harassment or manipulation), conduct (e.g., cyberbullying), and contracts (e.g., misleading advertisements or exploitation of personal data) (Livingstone & Stoilova, 2021). Additionally, there are cross-cutting risks that affect multiple categories, such as impacts on physical health, the development of digital addictions, or social isolation.

To mitigate these risks, teacher mediation is crucial. Mediation strategies range from active approaches, such as digital skills training and pedagogical guidance, to restrictive measures, such as controlling access to specific content (Kalmus, 2013). However, the effectiveness of these strategies largely depends on teachers’ digital competence and their ability to adapt these measures to the needs of students in educational settings (Gómez-Puerta & Chiner, 2020; Soo et al., 2015). Despite the growing integration of technologies in education, research highlights that many teachers report insufficient training to manage online risks, which limits their capacity to address complex issues such as cyberbullying or digital radicalization (Guillén-Gámez et al., 2024; Sağlam et al., 2023).

Continuous teacher training emerges as a key solution to these challenges, enabling educators to strengthen their digital competencies and acquire practical tools for risk mediation (Revuelta-Domínguez et al., 2022; Sánchez-Canut et al., 2023). Moreover, it is essential to combine digital literacy with effective risk management, ensuring that students can benefit from digital opportunities while minimizing unnecessary dangers (Finkelhor et al., 2021). However, research on teachers’ perceptions of their training and competence in these areas within regular schools remains limited.

This study aims to explore teachers’ perceptions in regular schools regarding their training and competence in preventing and managing online risks. The following research questions are addressed:

1. Have teachers in regular schools received training on online safety?
2. What is the perceived level of digital and mediation competence among teachers in preventing and managing online risks?
3. Is there a relationship between teaching experience, age, training received, and perceptions of digital and mediation competence?
4. Do teachers’ perceptions of competence differ based on gender, educational level taught, or training received?

Participants A randomly selected sample of 277 teachers of primary (38.3%, n = 106) and secondary education (61.7%, n = 171) schools across various Spanish regions participated in the study. Of these, 63 participants were members of the management team (22.9%), 186 (67.6%) were tutors or classroom teachers, and 26 (9.5%) were part of the educational support team (school counsellors, special education teachers, speech and language therapists). The majority of participants were female (66.4%, n = 184) with a mean age of 44.15 years (SD = 9.68). Teaching experience ranged from 1 to 45 years (M = 14.88, SD = 9.81). Instruments The Teacher Mediation of Internet Risks in Schools questionnaire was developed to collect data on teachers’ training, perceived competence in using digital technologies, and their perceived ability to prevent and manage online risks among students. The questionnaire consisted of: (a) Background characteristics (e.g., gender, age, years of teaching experience, educational level taught), (b) Internet safety training: participants indicated whether they had received training (yes/no) and the total number of hours, (c) Perceived digital competence: teachers rated their competence in using the internet on a scale from 0 to 10, and (d) Mediation competence: a five-point Likert scale (1 = not competent to 5 = highly competent) assessed teachers’ perceptions of their ability to prevent and address online risks. These risks were categorised into five groups (content, contact, conduct, contract, cross-cutting risks) as proposed by Livingstone & Stoilova (2021). The scale showed good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha of .89. Procedure A quantitative, cross-sectional survey design was employed. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Alicante, Spain (Ref. UA-2022-10-28). Surveys were mailed to selected schools, with prepaid envelopes provided for returns within one month. A follow-up email was sent two weeks later. Completing the survey required approximately 10 minutes. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and significance, assured of confidentiality, and provided informed consent. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse and compare the teachers’ responses. The significance level was set at p < .05.

Only 43.3% of participants had received training on internet safety, with training durations ranging from 1 to 500 hours (Md = 15). Teachers rated their overall digital competence as moderate to high (M = 7.70, SD = 1.35), while their perceived ability to prevent and address specific online risks was moderate (ranging from 3.12 to 3.25 on a five-point scale). Only 40% considered themselves very or highly competent in managing the five types of online risks. These findings are in line with what has already been described by previous studies (Guillén-Gámez et al., 2024; Sağlam et al., 2023). A statistically significant negative relationship was observed between years of teaching experience and digital competence (r = -0.15). In contrast, training hours positively correlated with higher digital competence (r = .19) and mediation competence across the five types of online risks (r = .29 - .32). Similarly, greater digital competence correlated with higher mediation competence for all risk types (r = .30 - .40). These data highlight the need to strengthen both initial and ongoing teacher training (Revuelta-Domínguez et al., 2022; Sánchez-Canut et al., 2023). Group comparisons showed that teachers who had received online safety training perceived themselves as more digitally competent and better prepared to manage online risks. Male teachers reported higher digital competence and greater ability to address contact and conduct risks compared to female teachers. No significant differences were observed between primary and secondary school teachers. The results emphasise the need for comprehensive internet safety training to strengthen teachers’ digital and mediation competence. Targeted programmes should address gaps, particularly for experienced educators. Equitable access to professional development is essential. A European certification framework aligned with DigCompEdu could standardise digital preparedness, enhancing resilience against online risks across educational systems (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2022).

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