School choice is inextricably linked with the institutional rules governing who should be admitted to schools. This is particularly clear in the case of academically selective grammar schools, which admit high ability children. The paper is in two parts. In the first part, we compare the rules and policies in place for admission to grammar schools in England with those used in the past in England, and those used in Germany (and the former West Germany) (Ertl & Phillips, 2000; Nikolai & West, 2013; Saur & Nikolai, 2024; Simon, 1991). In the second part, we focus specifically on England. Based on desk-based research we examine policy development over time. We then focus on recent empirical research which addresses the tests (commonly known as the 11-plus) used to determine who should be admitted to grammar schools, which cater for around 5% of the school age population. The tests include subject tests (e.g., mathematics, English) and verbal and nonverbal reasoning tests. The assessment methods demonstrate clear path dependence with the testing arrangements for admission to grammar schools developed in the 1940s (‘intelligence tests’) when the tripartite system – grammar schools, technical schools and secondary modern schools – was introduced (strongly associated with ideas from the eugenics movement (Chitty, 2007)). As the tests used for the 11-plus are not linked to the school curriculum, parents with the financial means are in a position to pay for private tutoring for their children with the aim of increasing the likelihood of them passing the 11-plus (Jerrim, 2017). Some public support for such a practice has been reported in England (Exley, 2012); however, we argue it reduces equality of opportunity in terms of access to grammar schools (Silver, 1973). Moreover, even though attempts have been made by policy makers to encourage schools to prioritise children from low income backgrounds in their admissions arrangements, the rules governing admission to grammar school still result in the beneficiaries being mainly children from more advantaged families (Cribb et al., 2013; West & Hind, 2007).

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