This paper is based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed research publications on competence-based education (CBE) approaches, with a particular emphasis on competence-based curriculum (CBC) visions and their implications for schooling. The study aims to answer two overarching research questions: What visions and corresponding features of CBC can be observed transnationally, and who are the main actors behind each vision? Additionally, what are the main implications and implementation challenges of CBC visions for formal schooling?

The review begins by exploring the various visions of CBC that have emerged globally. These visions are shaped by different educational philosophies, policy frameworks, and socio-economic contexts. For instance, some CBC models prioritize the development of specific skills and competencies that are deemed essential for the 21st century, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and digital literacy. Other models emphasize holistic education, focusing on the overall development of the learner, including emotional and social competencies.

Key actors behind these visions include international organizations, national governments, educational institutions, and private sector stakeholders. International organizations, such as UNESCO, EU and the OECD, play a significant role in promoting CBC through policy recommendations and frameworks. National governments adopt these frameworks and tailor them to their specific contexts, often influenced by political, economic, and cultural factors. Educational institutions, including schools and universities, are responsible for implementing CBC at the ground level, while private sector stakeholders, such as educational technology companies, provide tools and resources to support CBC implementation.

The paper then delves into the implications of these CBC visions for formal schooling. One major implication is the shift from traditional content-based curricula to a focus on competencies and skills. This shift requires significant changes in teaching methods, assessment practices, and curriculum design.

However, implementing CBC also presents several challenges. For example, the alignment of CBC with existing educational standards and accountability measures involves complex issues. In many countries, educational systems are still heavily focused on content knowledge and standardized testing, making it difficult to integrate CBC without significant policy and structural changes.

Additionally, there are concerns about equity and access in CBC implementation. Ensuring that all students, regardless of their socio-economic background, have access to high-quality CBC is crucial. This requires addressing disparities in resources, teacher quality, and learning opportunities.

The theoretical framework of this paper is grounded in several key concepts and theories. Drawing on the work of Charles Taylor (2004), the concept of social imaginaries is used to understand how collective visions of the future shape educational policies and practices. Social imaginaries refer to the shared understandings that enable common practices and a sense of legitimacy within a society. The paper also employs the concept of techniques of futuring (Oomen et al., 2022) to analyze how imagined futures become socially performative. This involves examining the social processes and practices that allow particular visions of the future to be promoted and enacted.

Additionally, the paper references the work of Michael Schiro (2013) to explore different curriculum ideologies, such as the scholar academic ideology, which focuses on fixed subject knowledge, and the learner-centered ideology, which emphasizes individual self-regulation and adaptability. The analysis is situated within the broader context of CBE, which focuses on what students can do with the knowledge they acquire. This includes examining the role of international organizations like the OECD and the European Union in promoting competence-based learning through policy recommendations and frameworks.

Finally, the paper explores how CBE reforms are recontextualized as they travel across different national contexts, adapting to specific economic, cultural, and political settings. This involves analyzing the dynamic interplay between transnational policy trends and national adaptations.

This study employs a systematic review methodology to analyze and synthesize the transformation of curriculum policy into competence-based curricula (CBC) in pre-university education globally over the past three decades. The review covers peer-reviewed research from 1997 to 2022, focusing on the dynamic interplay between transnational and national adaptations of competence-based education (CBE) reforms. The research follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework (Page et al., 2021) to ensure a comprehensive and transparent review process. The search strategy involved two rounds of searches conducted in early 2017 and 2023, using four key search terms: 'competence-based education,' 'competence-based curriculum,' 'key competences,' and 'key competencies.' The databases searched included ERIC, Scopus, Springer Link, Taylor & Francis Online, and Web of Science. Additionally, six peer-reviewed journals were specifically searched in 2023 to expand the article base. The inclusion criteria for the review were: (1) type of publication (journal articles and conference proceedings), (2) timeframe (1997-2017 & 2017-2022), (3) field of study (education or social sciences), (4) language (English), and (5) peer-reviewed status. Exclusion criteria included: (1) not in primary and secondary education, (2) vocational education, (3) not about competence-based education, and (4) no full-text accessible. A total of 159 articles were included in the final sample, with 84 articles from the 2017 search and 75 from the 2023 search. For data extraction and analysis, a matrix template with 11 entries was developed to capture consistent information from each article. The core focus was on four entries: main topics/objectives, main research questions, theoretical frameworks, and main arguments. The analysis involved reading, coding, categorizing, and interpreting the extracted text using the analysis spiral procedure (Creswell, 2013). This iterative process included multiple layers of reading, coding, and interpretation to ensure a thorough analysis. The study categorizes the articles into three groups: CBE/CBC policy, CBE/CBC implementation, and CBE/CBC reviews. A mixed empirically grounded bottom-up and theoretically oriented top-down approach was applied to synthesize the findings, resulting in the identification of five main CBC visions and three overarching CBE/CBC processes. This systematic review provides a detailed mapping of themes in CBE/CBC research and offers new conceptual tools for critically engaging with prior research and rethinking CBC visions and processes from transnational, European and national perspectives.

The outcomes of this systematic review are multifaceted, providing a comprehensive understanding of the evolution and impact of competence-based curricula (CBC) in pre-university education over the past three decades. Firstly, the review aims to identify and articulate five distinct visions of CBC, each with its unique features and implications. These visions will offer a nuanced perspective on how CBC has been conceptualized and implemented across different national contexts, highlighting the diversity and complexity of these educational reforms. Secondly, the review shed light on the key actors involved in promoting and shaping these CBC visions. By mapping out the roles of international organizations, national governments, educational institutions, and private sector stakeholders, the study provides insights into the transnational and national dynamics that drive CBC policy and practice. This will help to understand the interplay between global and European policy trends and national adaptations, revealing how different actors influence the direction and implementation of CBC reforms. Thirdly, the review explores the main implications and challenges associated with the implementation of CBC in formal schooling. This includes examining the shift from traditional content-based curricula to competence-based approaches, and the resulting changes in teaching methods, assessment practices, and curriculum design. The study identifies the professional development needs of teachers, the alignment of CBC with existing educational standards, and the equity and access issues that arise in different contexts. Finally, the review contributes to the theoretical and educational discourse on CBC by providing a detailed mapping of themes in CBE/CBC research. It will offer new conceptual tools for critically engaging with prior research and rethinking CBC visions and processes from both transnational and national perspectives. Overall, the expected outcomes will enhance our understanding of CBC as a travelling policy and its transformations in education systems.

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