This presentation explores the complex and often contradictory dynamics of teacher agency in neoliberal educational systems, illustrating how agency is simultaneously enabled and constrained by broader systemic forces. Teacher agency, broadly understood as the capacity of teachers to act purposefully and reflectively within their professional environments, is shaped by a multitude of external and internal factors (Priestley et al., 2015; Biesta, Robinson, & Priestley, 2015). Drawing on life history narratives of Estonian teachers who have navigated the transition from Soviet-era educational structures to contemporary neoliberal frameworks, this study examines the tensions between teacher autonomy and the pressures exerted by neoliberal reforms. These reforms, which emphasize efficiency, accountability, and market-driven educational policies, have redefined teacher roles, often under the guise of professional empowerment.

However, rather than fostering genuine autonomy, neoliberal educational policies tend to generate a paradoxical form of agency—what this study conceptualizes as "toxic agency." Toxic agency refers to a condition where teachers, rather than being truly empowered, internalize and reproduce restrictive neoliberal logic in ways that ultimately limit their professional freedom and pedagogical creativity (Apple, 2006; Sahlberg, 2018). Instead of fostering collaborative, critical, and student-centered teaching practices, toxic agency manifests in performativity, compliance with rigid assessment standards, and competition among teachers for status, recognition, and job security. This paradox illustrates how neoliberalism, while ostensibly advocating for teacher independence, simultaneously constructs mechanisms that control and regulate agency in subtle but powerful ways (Ball, 2003).

A central theme of this study is the role of nostalgia in shaping teacher agency. The narratives analyzed in this research reveal that teachers often experience a longing for an earlier "golden age" of teaching, whether real or imagined. This nostalgia can act as both a source of resistance and a barrier to adaptation (Ümarik & Goodson, 2018). On the one hand, nostalgia provides a counterpoint to neoliberal reforms, as some teachers leverage their memories of past pedagogical traditions to critique contemporary policies. On the other hand, nostalgia can limit professional growth by reinforcing idealized visions of past teaching conditions that may no longer apply to present-day educational realities. This entanglement of nostalgia with agency complicates teachers' ability to respond adaptively to the evolving demands of their profession.

The findings highlight the need for critical reflection on how neoliberal logics shape not only what teachers do but also how they perceive their roles. If agency is to be genuinely empowering, it must be decoupled from market-driven performance pressures and reimagined as a collaborative, pedagogically meaningful practice.

This study urges a re-evaluation of teacher agency, arguing for alternative models emphasizing collective agency, professional trust, and sustainable educational practices over competition and accountability-driven compliance. Without such shifts, teacher agency risks being co-opted in ways that reinforce, rather than challenge, the restrictive structures of neoliberal educational governance (Goodson & Rudd, 2017).

This research contributes to ongoing debates about the future of education in neoliberal contexts by offering a critical perspective on the interplay between policy, identity, and professional practice. It underscores the importance of fostering environments where teachers are genuinely empowered to act in ways that enrich their professional lives and student learning experiences. Additionally, by situating this study within the European and international discourse on neoliberalism in education, it provides a comparative framework for understanding how similar dynamics unfold in different educational contexts, offering insights relevant beyond the Estonian case.

To explore these themes, this study employs a multi-level analysis, examining agency at micro (individual teacher practice), meso (school and community dynamics), and macro (policy and governance) levels. At the micro level, teacher agency is shaped by personal beliefs, pedagogical philosophies, and interactions with students. At the meso level, school culture, professional networks, and local policy interpretations influence agency. At the macro level, national and international educational policies establish structural constraints within which agency is enacted. By integrating these levels, this research provides a nuanced understanding of how neoliberalism reshapes teacher agency beyond individual choices and actions. This study utilizes a qualitative approach, employing life-history interviews (Goodson & Sikes, 2001) to explore how teachers experience and exercise agency under neoliberal pressures. A purposeful sampling strategy was used to select 13 history and social science teachers, ensuring representation across different age groups and genders. The sample consists of 10 women and 3 men, with teaching experience ranging from seven to 47 years. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews conducted over a 1-2 year period, allowing for deeper insights into the evolving nature of the agency. The initial question, “Please tell me your story,” enabled teachers to construct their professional narratives, highlighting critical moments in their careers. Follow-up interviews were conducted with eight participants to clarify emerging themes and probe further into their experiences. Thematic narrative analysis (Riessman, 2005) was applied in conjunction with a typological framework to categorize different agentic dispositions. The study identified distinct patterns of agency shaped by the neoliberal policy environment, including toxic agency, where teachers' professional conduct aligns with efficiency, competition, and performative success rather than pedagogical collaboration or innovation (Priestley et al., 2015; Biesta, Robinson, & Priestley, 2015). Additionally, narrative portraiture (Rodriguez-Dorans & Jacobs, 2020) was employed to contextualize individual teacher experiences within broader social and political transformations. This methodology provided an in-depth understanding of how policy changes, nostalgia, and professional autonomy intersect to shape agentic behaviors. The combined use of thematic and portraiture analysis allowed for a comprehensive examination of the nuanced ways in which neoliberalism influences teacher agency, ensuring that individual experiences were linked to larger systemic forces.

This study highlights the paradoxical nature of teacher agency in neoliberal educational contexts. While autonomy is promoted rhetorically, it is simultaneously undermined by accountability measures, efficiency demands, and competitive pressures. The concept of toxic agency provides a lens to understand how teachers negotiate these contradictions—sometimes resisting reforms, other times adapting strategically to meet external demands at the cost of true professional autonomy. The typology developed in this study illustrates diverse agentic responses, including: Lone Wolves, who resist contemporary reforms through nostalgia and professional isolation. Ambitious Leaders, who embrace neoliberal ideals of competition and control, often at the expense of collegial collaboration. Salt of the Earth, who sustain a balance between autonomy and community engagement but face increasing systemic pressures. Dedicated Innovators, who strive for pedagogical progress but may experience burnout due to heightened performance expectations. Findings reveal that teacher nostalgia plays a crucial role in shaping agency, acting as both an enabler and an inhibitor. While nostalgia offers a sense of professional identity continuity, it can also limit adaptability to contemporary educational challenges. Ultimately, this research underscores the need for policies that support authentic teacher agency by fostering collaboration, trust, and reflective professional growth rather than reinforcing competition and performativity. By recognizing the deeper implications of toxic agency, policymakers and educators can work towards creating environments that genuinely empower teachers.

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