This paper interrogates the notion of “evidence” in pedagogical research by reflecting the dominance of empiricist approaches that prioritize standardized assessments and measurable outcomes. In contrast to psychology’s focus on quantifiable phenomena, pedagogy emphasizes the unique dynamics of educational relationships and actions (Pfrang & Castner, 2024). Benner (2008) and Kraus (2017) argue that the prevailing evidence-based paradigm, exemplified by large-scale initiatives like PISA (2000) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), narrow the scope of educational inquiry by favoring randomized field tests as the gold standard. These trends, institutionalized through entities like the Institute of Educational Sciences (IES) and What Works Clearinghouse (WWC), frame “what works” in education as fully known and fixed phenomena. Rooted in neoliberal policy contexts, these trends also sideline alternative methodologies and reduce the complexity of education to instrumental metrics. Critics like Cheek (2011), McDermott, and Hall (2007) highlight how such constraints not only marginalize diverse pedagogical perspectives but also negatively affect classroom practice. In the United States, policy discourse tends to be strategically ambiguous, which enables empty and often euphemistic political rhetoric to stand in for pedagogical language (Castner & Kraus, 2023). For instance, “leaving no child behind” is a sentiment that, when interpreted literally, sparks no controversy. A political mandate is not necessary to remind pedagogues of the undesirability of negligent practices. Nonetheless, there are tangible pedagogical implications for policies that over-emphasize standardized tests as the only valid and reliable “evidence” of teacher performance. Eisner (2001) explained how rationalization prespecifies and standardizes pedagogical goals, presuming these goals to be measurable in ways that foster comparison and competition. In addition, rationalization presumes teachers can predict and control outcomes, which reduces pedagogical relationships to unidirectional modes of communication, where teachers rely upon extrinsic motivations to maintain their students’ cooperation. In this sense, policies mandating evidence-based practices subtly undermine emergent goals, the unmeasurable aesthetic and ethical dimensions of teaching, personalized and contextualized pedagogical improvisations, and reciprocal relationships between teachers and students that respect students’ developing subjectivity. This paper challenges the restrictive definition of “what works” and advocates for a broader, more inclusive understanding of evidence that aligns with the multifaceted nature of education. In addition, this paper describes how various educational reform policies in Germany and the United States hinder pedagogical practice while circulating unassailable political rhetoric, showing pervasive inconsistencies between the rhetoric and practical consequences of education reform policies.

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