In a changing society that is marked by recent crises such as the COVID pandemic, the mental health of the population – especially of children and adolescence is declining (Ravens-Sieberer et al., 2022). This development highlights the importance of so-called “life-skills” which are defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life" (World Health Organization, 1994, p. 1). Life skills encompass a wide range of competencies, including self-awareness, coping with emotions, stress management, and empathy. One way to promote life skills is through structured school-based life skills programs, which can be either universal (e.g., designed for an entire school class) or tailored for individual support in specific settings. Various teaching methods are used to facilitate the acquisition of life skills, including role plays, group discussions, observation tasks, and creative design approaches (Jerusalem & Meixner-Dahle, 2021).

Life skills programs are an integral part of school-based prevention strategies and contribute to the social-emotional development of children and adolescents. Originally developed for addiction prevention, these programs have been expanded over the past decades to cover other areas of prevention. The focus has shifted from preventing addiction to fostering children's overall personal development and well-being (Jerusalem & Meixner-Dahle, 2021).

While the positive effects of life skills programs have been demonstrated (Bühler, 2016; Sherif et al., 2023; Taylor et al., 2017) it remains understudied whether programs differentially affect different student groups. Some studies suggest that females may benefit more from the programs than males (Shoshani & Slone, 2017; Weichold et al., 2012). Differential effects were not only investigated in relation to gender but also regarding children's socio-economic status, cultural and ethnic background, and age. However, the investigation of these effects is rare, rather explorative and seldom based on theoretical and substantiative considerations.

In this context, Bauer (2005) discusses the prevention dilemma, which he examines through the life  skills programme “Erwachsen werden”. This study revealed significant differences in programme implementation across school types. Teachers in academically oriented schools—often attended by students from more affluent socio-economic backgrounds—faced fewer challenges in delivering the programme as intended. The analysis further indicated that girls in such schools benefited the most from the programme, whereas boys in less academically oriented schools experienced the least gains. This pattern of findings corresponds to the Matthew Effect. The Matthew Effect, a concept introduced by Merton (1968), describes the phenomenon where individuals or groups who are already advantaged continue to accumulate benefits, while those who start with fewer resources fall further behind. In the context of education, the Matthew Effect posits the notion that students from higher socio-economic backgrounds tend to gain greater benefits from educational interventions, than those from less privileged backgrounds. This phenomenon has been observed across various domains, including literacy development, academic achievement, and engagement in prevention programs (Reichenbach, 2010).

Using a narrative review approach, the aim of the current study is to provide an overview of research on differential effects of school-based life skills programs, to identify variables mediating differential effects and to outline theoretical and sustentative explanations for these effects. Moreover, the study explores whether differential effects of life skills programs correspond to the Matthew effect, i.e. students with low levels of life skills benefit less from life skill programs than students with high levels of life skills. The findings aim to contribute to the development of more targeted approaches to ensure that those students who need it the most also benefit the most from the programs.

The study is conceptualized as a narrative literature review according to the literature available, which addresses differential effects of school-based life skill programs. Since the differential effects of life skills programs are often implicitly addressed, a systematic search proved challenging. As a result, a flexible and open approach was adopted. The narrative approach not only allows for the summarization of existing literature but also facilitates a critical and theoretical interrogation of it. This flexible method enables consideration of both the findings of studies and their broader significance within the scientific context. The advantage of this approach is that it enables a multifaceted response to the research question, providing a solid foundation for future studies in this field (Baumeister & Leary, 1997; Byrne, 2016). To ensure a broad base for the literature review, the research was primarily conducted using Google Scholar supplemented by targeted searches in subject-specific databases such as FIS Bildung. The search key was dynamically adapted and based on three central terms: „differential effects“, „prevention“, and „school“. To expand the search, related terms such as „differences“, „benefit“, „prevention programs“, „intervention programs“, and „school-based“ were also employed (in both German and English). Following an initial screening, in which the factors previously mentioned (sex, socio-economic background, cultural-ethnic background, and age) were more clearly defined, a more targeted search strategy was applied. The snowball method was also used to identify additional relevant studies. The present study incorporates research that examined a school-based prevention programme. The term "life skills programme" was understood in the broadest sense, meaning that studies examining analogous programs that are closely related to the concept of life skills were also included (e.g. social emotional learning). Studies on life skills programs in other settings than school, as well as those not universally applicable, were excluded. The decision to adopt a narrative approach does not claim to offer exhaustive coverage. After filtering the literature, the results are compared, and the effects on individuals are examined in detail. This includes factors such as sex, age, and socioeconomic status, as well as ethnocultural aspects.

Preliminary results of the literature search indicate that differential effects are often only mentioned implicitly or suggested towards the conclusion as a topic for future research. A closer examination of the studies will provide a clearer understanding of some of these effects. Given the variability in study results, it is crucial to investigate the underlying causes. The findings are likely to support the notion of the prevention dilemma (Bauer, 2005) and illustrate the Matthew effect (Merton, 1968). Another key observation is that differential effects are usually only marginally addressed in the evaluation of life skills programs and are not considered from the outset in research. This review will generate further research questions and could serve as a foundation for future evaluation studies in this field.

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