In this study, we examine how parental socio-economic status and country of origin influence children of immigrants' choice to take the national language matriculation exam in Finland—Finnish or Swedish—as a first or second language. Additionally, we explore how factors such as length of residency in Finland, GPA at the end of compulsory education, regional school setting, and number of siblings influence this choice. 

Previous research consistently shows that second language (L2) learners—often a large proportion of children of immigrants—underperform academically compared to their majority language-speaking peers (Lightbown & Spada, 2021; OECD, 2023; Thomas & Collier, 2002). This achievement gap is largely due to the extended time required for L2 learners to develop cognitive academic language proficiency (Cummins, 2021), compounded by socio-economic challenges (Bilican Demir & Yildirim, 2021). Despite various interventions, these issues persist, suggesting deeper structural factors may be at play. In particular, the second language curriculum has been criticized for reinforcing inequalities rather than addressing them (Öztürk et al., 2024; Fandrem et al., 2024). We aim to examine whether systematic inequalities exist in the selection of second language curriculum tracks among immigrant children, particularly regarding their choices for the national language test—Finnish or Swedish—as a first or second language in the matriculation exam.

The goal of the second language curriculum for minority language-speaking children is to enhance their language proficiency, promote equality in learning opportunities, and improve academic outcomes while facilitating societal integration. However, categorizing students as second language learners is often viewed as discriminatory against minoritized students, shaped by racial, social, and political dynamics (Flores & Rosa, 2019; Flores et al., 2018). Despite this, many minoritized students feel compelled to participate in second language learning programs with limited alternatives (Valdés, 2018; Norton, 2013; Macedo, 2019). Recent efforts in many European countries to refine policies for second language learners reflect an increasing awareness of the challenges within various educational contexts, with countries like Finland assessing their existing second language support programs and their integration into mainstream language curriculum, though the nature of the support and its implementation varies significantly across the continent (Cenoz & Gorter, 2015; Hélot et al., 2018; Harju-Autti, 2022). In this study, we examine Finland, where Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of instruction, to investigate potential inequalities in the second language curriculum choices of children of immigrants at the end of upper secondary education. The two official languages of Finland have their own segregated educational institutions. Given the less-developed second language curriculum on the Swedish-speaking side, this also gives us an opportunity to compare differentially prepared systems within the same overall national and educational context.

This study is grounded in both critical socio-cultural theory (Teemant et al., 2014) and the ecological perspective (van Lier, 2004). Critical socio-cultural theory underscores the significance of social identities, power relations, and family structures in shaping learning processes. Within this framework, we posit that parental socio-economic status and parents' country of origin will play a key role in influencing children's decisions regarding their second language learning paths. In parallel, the ecological perspective views language learning as being shaped by various physical and social environments. In this context, we hypothesize that factors such as length of residency in Finland, the GPA at the end of compulsory education, the school setting by region, and the number of siblings will also significantly affect children's choices regarding whether to take Finnish or Swedish test as first or second language in matriculation exam. Together, these theoretical lenses highlight the interplay of family, school, and contextual factors that are likely to influence the language curriculum path chosen by children of immigrants.

We use high-quality register data from Statistics Finland to examine matriculation exams from 1996 to 2023. The year 1996 marks the introduction of Finnish and Swedish as second-language tests in the matriculation examination. Over this period, a total of 21,658 students with foreign backgrounds participated in the exam. Among them, approximately 35% took the exam in Finnish or Swedish as their first language, while 65% took it as a second language. Our dependent variable is dichotomous, indicating whether a student took the national language test as a first or second language in the matriculation examination. Logistic regression with average marginal effects is used to analyze the factors influencing this choice, with results presented as predicted probability percentage points. We focus on how parental socio-economic status and country of origin influence the likelihood of taking Finnish or Swedish test as a first or second language, alongside other factors such as length of residency in Finland, GPA at the end of compulsory education, school setting by region, and the number of siblings. Parental socio-economic status is classified using the Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP) 3-class scheme: the upper class (white-collar professionals, administrators, and higher-level employees), the middle class (self-employed individuals, farmers, forest entrepreneurs, and lower-level employees), and the working class (manual workers, including those employed in agriculture and forestry) (Strasser, 1992). Parental country of origin is categorized into Nordics, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Former Yugoslavia, Middle East and North Africa, Africa, Asia, the Americas and Oceania, and Mixed origins. Length of residency in Finland is grouped into four categories: five years or less, six to eight years, nine to twelve years, and thirteen years or more (including those born in Finland). Academic performance is measured by the highest average GPA at the end of compulsory education. The school setting is classified as inner urban, outer urban, or peri-urban/rural based on the Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) criteria. The number of siblings is treated as a discrete variable.

Preliminary results suggest that children of immigrants from lower socio-economic backgrounds, those attending urban schools, and those with lower GPA at the end of lower secondary education are more likely to take Finnish or Swedish test as a second language in the matriculation exam. The analysis of parents' country of origin, length of residency, and number of siblings is still underway. Our findings will highlight how institutional and societal structures reinforce educational inequalities and contribute to global discussions on the challenges faced by second language learners, particularly in segregated curricula, while offering insights for fostering more equitable educational pathways for marginalized learners. We are currently drafting the manuscript and conducting data analysis, with conclusive results expected by February-March 2025.

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