This paper critically examines Malaysia's bilingual education system, arguing that it does not adequately reflect the country’s plurilingual reality, especially in East Malaysia, where diverse linguistic communities, such as those in Tawau, Sabah, remain marginalised. Drawing on translanguaging (Li, 2018) as the primary theoretical framework, the study explores the translanguaging practices of primary school pupils from the Buginese and Butonese communities, who are part of a diaspora that has existed in Sabah for decades. These communities’ unique diasporic translanguaging practices are situated within broader discourses on plurilingualism, decolonisation, and social justice, highlighting the limitations of current interpretations of translanguaging in education.

A central argument of this paper is that translanguaging has largely been theorised in two dominant strands: pedagogical translanguaging, which occurs in structured classroom settings, and spontaneous translanguaging, which emerges in everyday interactions (Fuster & Bardel, 2024). While both are useful for distinguishing translanguaging functions, the focus on pedagogical translanguaging risks reinforcing hierarchical structures that marginalise the everyday linguistic practices of minoritised communities. This paper argues that spontaneous translanguaging, despite its potential to foster authentic language development, remains largely neglected in educational research and policy, limiting its transformative role in decolonising language education and advocating for linguistic equity.

To address these gaps, the paper proposes a conceptual framework that integrates both pedagogical and spontaneous translanguaging, creating transformative translanguaging spaces in education. This framework recognises pupils' entire communicative repertoires, including linguistic, multimodal, and semiotic resources, and asserts that language learning must be rooted in sociocultural contexts and lived experiences. By legitimising these diverse resources in educational settings, this approach aims to empower marginalised pupils and foster more inclusive and equitable language education policies. Three research questions guide the investigation: first, exploring the translanguaging practices of plurilingual pupils from the Buginese and Butonese communities; second, examining how the notion of translanguaging space contributes to their English language learning; and third, identifying the theoretical and pedagogical implications of these findings.

The significance of this study extends beyond Malaysia, as many European nations face similar challenges with plurilingual classrooms. Migration and mobility are reshaping linguistic landscapes, with countries such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Netherlands experiencing tensions between national language policies and the linguistic realities of increasingly diverse student populations. As these communities engage in rich translanguaging practices, dominant language ideologies often prioritise monolingual proficiency in the national language (e.g. Costley & Leung, 2020; Sahr, 2020). By positioning translanguaging as a tool for linguistic and educational justice (Li, 2023; Li & García, 2022; Mendoza, 2023), this paper offers insights for European policymakers, educators, and researchers working towards more inclusive language education approaches.

The decolonial perspective embedded in this research aligns with critical discussions in European academia about linguistic hierarchies, power, and identity. Just as colonial language policies in Malaysia marginalise indigenous and minoritised languages, Europe faces historical and contemporary inequalities in language education. The privileging of dominant European languages over regional, migrant, and heritage languages parallels the challenges faced by East Malaysian communities. Additionally, Malaysia’s English Language Teaching (ELT) policy, adapted from European frameworks, overlooks the local linguistic ecologies and plurilingual realities of Malaysian pupils (Rajendram, 2022; Too, 2023). This paper contributes to global discussions on dismantling monolingual biases and developing language education policies that reflect the realities of plurilingual societies.

Linguistic ethnography is the primary methodology employed in this study, defined as the in-depth exploration of language use within specific social contexts to understand how language shapes social interactions (Copland & Creese, 2015; Shaw et al., 2015). This approach has been used in previous research on translanguaging, such as in the studies by Ataş (2023) and Mendoza (2020). By employing linguistic ethnography in this qualitative research, the study offers a comprehensive approach to investigating translanguaging practices, providing insights into how language use functions in everyday social contexts. This method is particularly useful in exploring the complex dynamics of translanguaging, as it allows for the observation and analysis of language practices in natural settings, documenting how individuals navigate multiple languages in their daily interactions (Copland & Creese, 2015; Shaw et al., 2015). Linguistic ethnography is essential in uncovering the nuanced ways in which translanguaging practices unfold, especially within specific sociocultural contexts. In this study, the focus is on pupils from the Buginese and Butonese communities in Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia, shedding light on the social, cultural, and linguistic dimensions of their translanguaging practices. This methodology also enables an exploration of how these translanguaging practices are shaped by broader sociopolitical factors, such as the ideologies and policies influencing language education. Furthermore, the study extends this exploration to the pupils' parents, ESL teachers, and headmasters, who, as gatekeepers, can influence language teaching and learning based on their own language ideologies and the educational policies imposed on them. These perspectives are crucial for understanding how translanguaging is framed within the larger educational landscape. Through rigorous observation, analysis, and critical reflection, linguistic ethnography helps to uncover the complexities of translanguaging in this diverse sociocultural context. It contributes to both theoretical advancements in understanding translanguaging as a practice and practical insights for language education and policymaking. The methods of data collection employed in this study include classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, field notes, and an innovative tool called translanguaging portraits. This combination of methods allows for a multi-faceted approach to investigating the phenomenon of translanguaging, capturing its dynamic and fluid nature in the context of a plurilingual educational environment.

The data collected thus far have revealed significant findings, including how visibility can be a double-edged sword, influencing the translanguaging practices of the research participants. The translanguaging portraits, developed as a response to the limitations of traditional language portraits, have provided crucial insights into the spontaneous and instinctive nature of the pupils' translanguaging practices. These portraits have shown that the pupils blend linguistic, multimodal, and semiotic resources effortlessly, reflecting a seamless integration of multiple languages and forms of communication in their everyday interactions. Linguistically, the pupils' unawareness of rigid language boundaries underscores their natural inclination to transgress these so-called boundaries in pursuit of effective communication. This instinctive behaviour challenges conventional notions of language separation, highlighting the fluidity and adaptability of their language practices. Furthermore, their use of multiple semiotic modes, such as gestures, body language, and visual elements in the translanguaging portraits, demonstrates their holistic approach to meaning-making, which extends beyond spoken or written language alone. This multimodal aspect reinforces the idea that communication is a dynamic, integrative process that cannot be confined to traditional linguistic categories. These findings thus far underscore the importance of considering both linguistic and sociocultural factors when examining translanguaging, as they provide deeper insights into how pupils navigate complex language landscapes. The study's focus on the Buginese and Butonese communities in East Malaysia contributes to a broader understanding of how diasporic translanguaging practices challenge traditional views of language in education.

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