Parents have highlighted feeling powerless in the school exclusion process because school staff speak louder and have all the authority (Feingold & Rowley, 2022; Parker et al., 2016). Reay (2017) suggests that working-class pupils can face disadvantage in the education system because middle-class families have an advantage due to their affluence and privilege, while working-class families lack confidence and a sense of entitlement. This paper uses the Foucauldian concept of governmentality to explore parents' feelings of power in the school exclusion process. Foucault's (2019) governmentality theory describes how power is exercised through government, using a broader definition that goes beyond political structures, where social institutions such as schools designate how the conduct of individuals or groups may be directed. Furthermore, Foucault suggests that the school system is based on a form of judicial power where pupils are continuously evaluated and classified and where punishment and reward are used to teach. Gallagher (2008) highlighted that saying someone is exercising power explains very little and more empirical research is needed to explore how power is exercised in schools. To examine how power is exercised in the school exclusion process, this study draws on Arnstein's (1969) ladder of citizen participation as a conceptual lens to analyse parents' experiences. At the bottom of Arnstein's ladder is nonparticipation; citizens cannot participate in decision-making in this domain. The following domain is tokenism. This is where citizens have a voice and are heard, but their views are not considered. The final domain at the top of the ladder is citizen control, where citizens have varying degrees of decision-making power. This paper uses data from semi-structured interviews with 11 parents to understand their children's school experiences, measures that schools implemented to prevent exclusions, and how they experienced the school exclusion process. The findings showed that parents could feel manipulated when they were involved too late when school staff had already decided to exclude their children. Conversely, some parents felt that they had the power to influence decisions and valued working in partnership with school staff to inform the sanction their child would receive and avoid permanent exclusion. It is concluded that not all parents have equal influence in the school exclusion process. The research findings highlight the need to make sure that all parents are given the opportunity to participate in the exclusion process to ensure that the education system is fairer and more inclusive (Bridgeman 2024).

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