Citizenship is a central aspect of the formative process of individuals. Educational systems shape their citizens based on a model previously established by the administration, which is driven by motivations that respond to the social context of their time. In the case of Europe, from 2015 onwards, policy documents justify their recommendations by emphasizing population security in response to terrorist threats, as well as the importance of institutional knowledge (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, 2018). Within the European framework, several guidelines, presented as non-binding recommendations, are aimed at fostering civic, digital, and secure citizenship (Joris et al., 2021; OECD, 2018; UNESCO, 2015). Furthermore, this idea of European citizenship is closely linked to the European educational framework (Kuhn & Sultana, 2006). While this framework does not directly or decisively intervene in the educational policies of member states, it does influence them, as national governments often adopt it as a means of accountability and out of fear of lagging behind if they fail to align with the rest (Ydesen & Andreasen, 2019). The European education framework promotes a competency-based approach, where citizenship is understood as a key competency to be acquired and developed by all individuals from early schooling stages (EUCO, 2018).

Competencies have become a prominent element of global educational discourse (López-Gómez, 2016). The European educational framework defines competency as the ability to mobilize knowledge, skills, and attitudes for successful performance in different areas of life. In this sense, the European Union conceptualizes civic competency as the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to prepare individuals for active participation in democratic societies, involving the knowledge of the concepts of democracy, justice, equality, citizenship, and civil rights (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, 2018). Thus, the EU aligns with the Competency-Based Education approach, alongside other influential international actors such as UNESCO and the OECD. This educational model promotes the acquisition of competencies to ensure successful adaptation to social changes, particularly in socioeconomic and labor-related aspects (Levine & Patrick, 2019; Preston, 2017). Consequently, if the EU promotes a competent citizenship—understood as fostering civic engagement, institutional participation, and responsible digital behavior—this model appears to prioritize the preservation of dominant European ideals rather than the promotion of individual autonomy and the evolution of social constructs. In other words, the EU’s concept of competent citizenship adheres to a limited model of citizenship.

In this study, we contrast this competency-based vision with the Bildung-didaktik approach, which emphasizes individual self-development alongside social progress. This perspective positions citizenship as a pillar of autonomous education and social emancipation (Horlacher, 2014; Ryen & Jøsok, 2021). As such, it offers a more humanistic and less mechanistic vision than the competency-based model, guiding individuals toward a form of citizenship that is not only participatory but also critically engaged.

This study adopts the Post-Critical Pedagogy approach developed by Hodgson, Vlieghe, and Zamojski (2018), which advocates for a genuine transformation of education while recognizing it as society’s most valuable asset. Post-critical pedagogy does not provide a direct action plan but rather fosters a critical attitude toward education, encouraging reflection beyond traditional structures and dominant discourses. Instead of imposing a specific model of change, it seeks to create spaces for dialogue and reconsideration of educational assumptions (Hodgson et al., 2018). Citizenship is a fundamental aspect of the formative process, and the model promoted through the school system plays a crucial role in shaping society. In line with the post-critical approach, this study goes beyond a mere critical discourse analysis of citizenship to also examine its broader context and highlight the interests of administrative authorities in disseminating these pedagogical ideas (Bolívar Botía, 2007). To this end, it analyzes European Parliament resolutions and European Commission recommendations on citizenship and competencies from 2015 onwards, paying particular attention to how European initiatives are implemented by EU member states, such as Spain. This allows for an assessment of the model of citizenship that European institutions seek to promote. Once the desired and institutionally driven concept of citizenship is identified, an alternative perspective is considered: the Bildung-Didaktik model, which is brought into dialogue with the competency-based approach to citizenship in order to compare possible outcomes when applying both perspectives to citizenship models.

This study aims to understand the contextualized model of citizenship promoted by the EU, compare it with the concept of citizenship in Bildung-Didaktik, and evaluate which pedagogical model fosters which type of citizenship. As preliminary findings, the EU’s model of citizenship appears to be reductionist, as it primarily emphasizes civic participation and individual competence within democratic institutions. While democratic participation is desirable, citizenship should aspire to more than institutional engagement. From the perspective of Bildung-Didaktik, citizenship is closely linked to individual autonomy and the development of the critical awareness necessary to make informed decisions that benefit society (Horlacher). This suggests a broader and more comprehensive vision of citizenship. The Enlightenment ideal that originally inspired liberal education sought to cultivate emancipated, critical citizens who actively participated in public life. Over time, this vision extended beyond the elites to include broader social classes and the general population (reference). However, contemporary educational policies increasingly prioritize academic excellence and educational quality metrics, aligning national education systems with global trends that reduce education to a professionalizing activity. This shift narrows the role of citizenship to its strictly economic and non-critical civic dimensions, shaping a future largely predetermined by technological and labor-market imperatives. Basic education is increasingly subordinated to socioeconomic interests rather than providing individuals with open-ended possibilities for personal and intellectual development. In response to this instrumentalist and technocratic approach, this study argues for a renewed emphasis on the emancipatory ideals of liberal education, particularly those embodied in the concept of Bildung. By fostering autonomy, critical thinking, and self-cultivation, Bildung-Didaktik offers an alternative vision of citizenship—one that is not merely participatory but also reflective and engaged in shaping society beyond institutional frameworks.

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