England has been a pioneer in Europe of outcomes-based qualifications, the approach adopted by the European Qualifications Framework. The introduction of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) constituted a paradigm shift from a dual system linked to a curriculum to a system based on prescribed outcomes, or competencies, which are assessed in terms of performance of skills in the workplace. Vocational courses can be seen to originate in the craft-based model where a narrow range of skills is learnt on the job with one specific employer, and with little theoretical underpinning. NVQs in particular have been criticised for the lack of theoretical knowledge, their neglect of general education, and the fragmentation of skills, standing in stark contrast to more holistic continental approaches, such as the German notion of Beruf. While there are important variations across the four occupations, our research findings appear to confirm the prevalence of a functional-behaviourist competence based approach.