Digital competence is understood as a "situated multiple integrated skills and practices (conceptual, attitudinal, procedural, and ethical) that empower people (individuals and groups) to participate and communicate efficiently in society" (Marín & Castañeda, 2022, p. 5). With the notable impact from the Covid-19 pandemic, teachers are called worldwide to develop their digital competence as professionals, especially considering their role in educating (and empowering) future citizens in the digital world (Bond, 2020).

National (or even regional) mandates for teachers to develop their digital competence are usually gathered in professional reference frameworks. Reference frameworks for teachers are relevant in that they are "policy documents that define the minimum standard of professional attributes that all educators teaching within a given educational system are expected to possess, to be able to do their jobs properly" (Villar-Onrubia et al., 2022, p. 129).

Even if some countries (or regions) have also their own digital competence framework for teachers - for example, DigCompEdu in Europe has influenced the creation of different frameworks across the continent and beyond -, these do not have the same level of use, since often take the form of non-binding documents proposed as guidance. In addition, most of those frameworks do not address the critical dimension of teachers' digital competence, which would involve going beyond effectiveness and instrumental aspects of digital competence, hence being a pending issue in teacher education around the world (Castañeda & Villar-Onrubia, 2023).

Critical digital competence involves adopting a critical approach when consuming and sharing content and dealing with data, but also developing a level of awareness of the power dynamics of ICT stakeholders and their implications (Villar-Onrubia et al., 2022). Even though this competence is key to any person, it is especially important for teachers, because they are uniquely positioned to empower younger generations in that responsible, critical and ethical engagement with digital technologies (Gouseti et al., 2021; Marín et al., 2021).
In this study we explore the specific case of the Quebec province (Canada). The province counts with an action plan for digitalisation since 2018 that will be completed in 2023. The first of its measures involved establishing and implementing a reference framework for digital competence (Ministère de l'Éducation du Québec, 2019), which connects to the new version of the reference framework for professional competences for teachers (published in 2020). The Competency 12, Mobilize digital technologies, details in its scope that “it goes beyond the technical skills needed to use digital tools for pedagogical purposes in the classroom. Teachers must be aware of the impact of these changes on the nature and value of learning” and highlights as key elements, aspects such as “exercises ethical citizenship in the digital age” or “develops critical thinking with regard to the use of digital technology”. These elements coincide with the dimensions that appear in the framework for digital competence and differ from other teacher reference frameworks worldwide in the value given to critical and digital citizenship elements (Villar-Onrubia et al., 2022).

By studying the case of digital competence integration in teacher education programmes in Quebec universities, with emphasis on critical digital competence and digital citizenship, we aim at providing insights into new ways of doing that could be useful for an European context and beyond, as well as at contributing to international research in this context.

Two research questions were posed in the study:

RQ1: How is the teacher reference framework being mobilized in terms of digital competence in teacher education programmes at Quebec universities?

RQ2: How are critical digital competence and digital citizenship considered among the development of digital competence in teacher education programmes at Quebec universities?

The study follows an interpretive approach, since the objective is to better understand how digital competence is integrated in teacher education programmes at the Canadian province of Quebec, as a potential worldwide referent (Villar-Onrubia et al., 2022). To triangulate data and obtain a broader view and insights into the two research questions, two qualitative data collection methods have been used in parallel: semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 7 higher education instructors in education departments with expertise in educational technology or distance education of 3 universities with teacher education programs in Quebec. The interviews were guided by three questions that led to open-ended and flexible answers by the participants with relation to: a) their vision of the development of the digital competence in teacher education, b) the elements of the digital competence (importance, emphasis, connection to practice) and critical digital competence and digital citizenship, and c) the further development of the digital competence in initial teacher education programs. The key elements of the digital competence of the reference framework for teachers was used as a prompt in b) (Ministère de l'Éducation du Québec, 2020). The interviews were recorded and transcribed before their analysis. Document analysis involved the search and analysis of the website descriptions of digital technologies/competences courses within undergraduate and graduate teacher education programmes leading to teacher professional accreditation in educational compulsory levels in Quebec. 13 Quebec universities, out of the total of 18, had these kinds of teacher education study programs. 34 courses were found and analysed. Data was tabulated in a spreadsheet file with the different basic information about the courses and their correspondence to the elements of the digital competence framework. Content analysis from interviews' data and the courses identified in the document analysis was conducted using two coding approaches in different steps. First, a deductive coding approach was applied based on the Quebec digital competence elements. A second inductive coding approach was carried out to identify further relevant codes. The qualitative analysis software MAXQDA2022 was used to support this process of analysis.

The preliminary results show that training for digital competence in teacher education programs is covered by all Quebec universities, although there is still room for improvement in terms of critical digital competence, which may relate to the fact that the new reference framework for teachers was still being deployed at the time of the study. The analysis of the 34 courses related to digital competence for teachers shows that the dimensions regarding harnessing of the potential of digital resources for learning and developing and mobilizing technological skills are among the most frequently present elements. Developing critical thinking regarding the use of digital technology is the third element in the list in terms of frequency, present in about half of the courses. Other dimensions such as adopting an innovative and creative approach to the use of digital technology or solving diverse problems via digital technology were barely present (in two courses). On the other hand, most of the courses included in their descriptions some connection to critical digital competence and digital citizenship. These findings coincide partially with what interviewees stated. They mostly agreed on the digital competence elements that were more emphasised (the more instrumental ones, e.g., communication or content production), and the less emphasised (e.g., innovation and creativity or critical thinking) in the teacher education programs. Most interviewees stated that all dimensions were important and interrelated, but that developing and mobilizing technological skills was the basis. Also, they highlighted the importance of critical thinking regarding the use of digital technology. This study contributes to the further international development of the (critical) digital competence for pre-service teachers in higher education, and involves the consideration of implications at the institutional and teaching and learning levels, e.g., approaches to digital competence that consider its cross-curricular status.

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