Different methods and instruments are used to assess competences relevant to labour. In regard to German empirical educational research John Erpenbeck (2009, p.19 f.) made the distinction of cognitive orientation and performance orientation to conclude all different methodical approaches. The cognitive strategy to measure competences concentrates on testing domain-specific knowledge. These tests prefer mostly multiple-choice-items. In opposite to this position is the second orientation which examines competences in open situations. The individuals tested have to accomplish practical tasks.

Erpenbeck´s discrimination focuses on the contents of the tasks applied within test-situations. His distinction should be amended by the origin of the perspective regarding the scale of rating, which is used to assess competences. This idea is based on the fundamental insight of phenomenology: Knowledge of objects depends always upon the point of view of an observer (Graumann 2002, p. 26). This statement is appropriate to all kinds of measurements as well. Measurements and scales incorporate abstract points of view of observers.

Competences are measured within the context of learning processes. The results could be related to an input or an outcome of the process. Principally, three different positions on learning processes are conceivable: The perspective of the curriculum, the perspective of the teaching person (or colleague, or senior) and the perspective of the learner himself.

Concerning the perspective of curricula learning processes take place in domains of knowledge in different disciplines. Learners have to accomplish learning objectives of curricula. Therefore, many measurements of competences contain more or less parameterized domain-specific educational objectives. The result of these empirical measurements is the description of competence levels. They express to what extent learning objectives of curricula are achieved by groups of learners.

The perspective of teaching persons or other persons that cooperate with the learner is different from the curricular approach. These persons use their own personal experiences as a kind of internal scale to rate the achievements of their learners. The symbolic interactionism would name this view as the perspective of the “significant other”. The corresponding scale of rating the competences of learners uses the social interactions between teaching and learning persons.

The third approach on learning processes is related to the perspective of the learner. The relations of the individual to learning matters are in the focus. More or less detailed cognitive pictures of learning contents are in the heads of the learners. These individual pictures are the initial point for ratings or assessments regarding processes of learning and its outcomes. Visualizing methods of cognitive structures concerning learning matters can be adopted from cognitive psychology. Examples are concept-maps, repertory grids or special network representations, e.g. called in German “Struktur-Lege-Techniken”.

Methods of cognitive psychology contain verbal reports of thinking processes of learners. These methods produce qualitative data. But they can be transformed into quantitative data and measurements. For example Shavelson describes the use of concept-maps as assessment tools in the evaluation of learning processes (see f. e. Ruis-Primo & Shavelson 1996)

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