In the context of rapid social, technological and labour market change, vocational education and training (VET) systems across Europe increasingly emphasise the development of learners’ capacity for lifelong learning. Alongside occupation-specific competencies, vocational learners are expected to acquire transversal skills that enable them to manage their own learning, adapt to new demands and engage proactively in continuous professional development (Cedefop, 2023). Within European education policy, learning to learn is defined as a key competence and is closely linked to learners’ ability to regulate their learning processes independently and purposefully (European Commission, 2019).

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is widely recognised as a foundational concept underpinning learning to learn and self-directed learning. SRL refers to learners’ active and constructive engagement in planning, monitoring, regulating and evaluating their learning through cognitive, motivational and behavioural processes (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2002). From a social-cognitive perspective, self-regulated learners set goals, select and adapt strategies, manage their time and learning environment, and reflect on outcomes in order to improve future performance (Zimmerman, 2000, 2013). Research has consistently demonstrated that strong SRL skills are associated with higher academic achievement, greater motivation, and better coping with learning difficulties (Jossberger et al., 2010; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994).

In vocational education, SRL is particularly important due to the applied and often complex nature of vocational learning, which requires learners to integrate theoretical knowledge with practical tasks and workplace-related demands. However, previous studies have raised concerns about vocational students’ learning skills, especially in relation to planning, time management, organisation and sustained engagement with learning tasks (de Bruijn & Leeman, 2011; Sirk, 2025). Much of this research has relied on vocational teachers’ perceptions and has tended to portray vocational students and particularly adolescents, as having weak self-regulatory skills. At the same time, vocational student populations in many European countries are highly heterogeneous, encompassing a wide age range and diverse educational backgrounds (Boldrini et al., 2019; Sirk, 2025), which suggests that SRL skills and related difficulties may manifest in varied ways.

Despite the growing recognition of SRL as a crucial competence for VET and lifelong learning, there is still limited empirical research that foregrounds vocational students’ own perspectives on their self-regulated learning skills and the difficulties they experience in regulating their learning. Understanding how learners themselves perceive their regulatory capacities is essential for designing pedagogical practices that provide appropriate and differentiated support. This is particularly relevant in European VET systems that aim to promote inclusion, learner autonomy and sustainable learning pathways (Cedefop, 2023).

Against this backdrop, the overarching research question guiding this conference presentation is: How do vocational students’ self-regulated learning skills manifest, and what kinds of difficulties do they experience in regulating their learning?

The study underpinning this conference presentation adopts a quantitative survey design to explore how vocational students perceive their self-regulated learning skills and the difficulties they encounter in regulating their learning. Data were collected using a web-based questionnaire administered to vocational students across all VET institutions in Estonia. The survey was conducted shortly after a period of compulsory distance learning, a context that placed increased demands on students’ capacity to regulate their learning independently. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and all ethical principles concerning informed consent and data protection were observed. The sample consisted of 244 vocational students aged between 16 and 64 years, reflecting the diversity of students’ population. Such heterogeneity allowed the analysis to capture variation in self-regulated learning skills across different learner profiles rather than focusing on a single age group. Self-regulated learning was operationalised using items adapted from established executive skills and SRL instruments (Dawson & Guare, 2010; Strait et al., 2019). Students self-evaluated their difficulties across five theoretically grounded domains: plan management, time management, organisation, behaviour regulation and emotion regulation. Responses were recorded on Likert-type a six-point scale (1 = strongly disagree - this doesn't describe me at all, 6 = strongly agree - this totally describes me). Additional questionnaire sections addressed perceived learning difficulties, engagement in individual and collaborative learning activities, experiences of feedback, and learning motivation. Data analysis proceeded in several stages. First, factor analysis was used to identify key dimensions of SRL relevant to vocational students. Second, a cluster analysis was applied to examine how students’ SRL skills manifested in distinct patterns, enabling the identification of groups of learners with similar strengths and difficulties. Finally, inferential statistical analyses (including analysis of variance and cross-tabulations) were used to explore how different SRL profiles were associated with perceived learning difficulties, learning activities, feedback experiences and motivation.

The findings indicate that vocational students’ self-regulated learning skills manifest in different ways and that difficulties in regulating learning are both widespread and unevenly distributed. Rather than forming a homogeneous group, vocational students demonstrate distinct patterns of strengths and challenges across key self-regulated learning domains such as planning, time management, organisation and behaviour regulation. Students with stronger and more balanced self-regulated learning skills report fewer general learning difficulties, higher levels of motivation and more positive learning experiences. They tend to engage more effectively in collaborative learning activities and perceive teacher feedback as sufficient and supportive. In contrast, students who experience greater difficulties in regulating their learning also report lower motivation, more frequent learning difficulties and a stronger need for guidance and feedback. These findings are consistent with earlier research highlighting the role of self-regulated learning in sustaining engagement, coping with academic demands and achieving positive learning outcomes (Zimmerman, 2002; Jossberger et al., 2010). Importantly, the results suggest that difficulties in self-regulated learning are not confined to a particular age group. Challenges in regulating learning are evident across diverse learner profiles, emphasising that self-regulated learning is not automatically acquired through age or experience but develops through interaction with learning environments and pedagogical practices. This insight is particularly relevant for European vocational education and training systems, which aim to support learner autonomy, inclusion and sustainable learning pathways within increasingly heterogeneous student populations (European Commission, 2019; Cedefop, 2023). From a pedagogical perspective, the findings underline the importance of differentiated support in VET. Learners with weaker self-regulated learning skills may benefit from structured guidance, explicit support in planning and monitoring learning, and frequent formative feedback. Collaborative learning activities and meaningful feedback appear especially valuable in supporting students who struggle with regulating their learning processes.

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