Alternation between learning venues is a key principle of dual VET systems. By combining school-based learning and company-based training, it holds the promise of enabling learners to recontextualize knowledge across different settings, and to develop comprehensive occupational competences (Grollmann, 2018). While alternation is commonly underpinned by institutions such as training ordinances and VET-related legislation, research shows that this does not necessarily translate into active, sustainable cooperation between learning venues. In practice, VET schools and training companies engage in different ways (Gössling et al. 2025). 

In the 1990s and early 2000s, a first wave of research developed models and typologies describing the cooperation of learning venues in Germany based on large empirical studies  (Berger&Walden, 1994). The underlying theoretical approaches were mainly systems theory, neo-institutionalism, organisational theory, and action- or actor-centred approaches (Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, 2005). Studies focused on organisational-technical aspects of cooperation and led to the formulation of policy recommendations and pilot projects to institutionalise closer cooperation between learning venues. In 2005, the principle of cooperation was introduced in the TVET law on Germany and subsequently, the topic almost disappeared from the research agenda. Since the 2020s, a revival of research on cooperation in VET can be observed in German-speaking countries(Schwede, 2025). During the past decade, the number and diversity of learning venues involved in German VET have increased due to digitalisation and more complex qualification requirements, making cooperation more complex but also more vital to ensure the quality of training (Dehnbostel, 2020;Freiling et al. 2022;Gössling, 2025). Moreover, in a context of demographic change, in which companies find it difficult to attract young talents and the VET system struggles to maintain its attractiveness, cooperation is seen as a means to make dual apprenticeships more attractive and to prevent dropout. Digitalisation also provides new means to enhance communication between different learning venues (Hackel et al. 2017;Seufert, 2025;Wagner-Herrbach, 2022).

Drawing on research on School-Workplace-Connectivity (Griffiths&Guile, 2003;Tynjälä, 2008), the concept of “boundary crossing” started to be used to examine cooperation in dual VET systems in Switzerland and Austria, and later in Germany as well (Aprea et al. 2020). Boundary crossing is theoretically grounded in Engeström’s Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT). With CHAT, learning venues can be conceptualised as different activity systems with different but overlapping objects, artefacts mediating their interactions, contradictions and tensions relevant for cooperation. The argument put forward here is, that CHAT, rather than boundary crossing as a standalone concept, is particularly well suited to analyse how cooperation works and to identify points of action for strengthening cooperation both on technical-organisational as well as on pedagogical-didactical aspects (Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, 2005;Euler, 1999).

Building on the empirical case of a pilot project focusing on improving cooperation between learning venues in German dual VET, this study develops an analytical framework based on CHAT to describe and understand cooperation between learning venues. The framework is applied to understand the pilot project’s theory of change (ToC) and to compare it to empirical evidence on success factors and barriers for cooperation. The research questions are:  

-       How can CHAT be operationalized to describe and understand the pilot project’s ToC and learning venue cooperation more generally?

-       To what extent does the ToC fit with existing findings about cooperation processes between learning venues in dual VET?

The European relevance of the study is grounded in the further development of CHAT as analytical framework to understand cooperation between learning venues in VET and to develop targeted strategies and activities aiming at improving cooperation long-term. The relevance of insights gained is not limited to the German context but can be transferred to a variety of settings of alternance between learning venues in skill formation systems.

The research paper is conceived as a case study focusing on a project funded by the Federal Ministry of Education in Germany within the InnoVET PLUS programme (2024-2028). In a first step, the project’s theory of change is explicated, based on Cultural-Historical Activity Theory. CHAT is used to link the different aspects of the project’s theory of change to the elements of the activity systems that represent different learning venues, especially training companies and VET schools. Empirical data for the reconstruction of the project’s theory of change include project documents (e.g. proposal, interim report, minutes of key project meetings and project presentations) as well as information collected through the project’s formative evaluation. In the framework of the evaluation, which is conducted externally by the authors of this paper, workshops are conducted on a regular basis every three to four months to reflect on the project implementation, challenges and plans. Engeström’s (1987) activity system model consists of seven building blocks and describes human activity as an interconnected structure shaped by social and organisational factors. At the centre of the activity systems is the subject, referring to an individual or group carrying out the activity. The subject works to achieve an object, which represents the purpose or motivation. This process is supported by tools, including both physical artifacts and social interactions. The activity is guided by rules that influence how actions are performed, whether formally defined or implicitly understood. Activities takes place within a community to which the subject belongs, and responsibilities are distributed through a division of labour. Together, these elements interact to produce the outcome, which is the final result of the activity. By analysing the theory of change of the project through the analytical lens of CHAT, the underlying assumptions about how the project’s interventions might induce changes in the learning venues i.e. activity systems are revealed. In a second step, based on findings gained from an extensive literature review on cooperation between learning venues in VET, the different elements of the activity systems developed in the first step will be assessed, guided by the following questions: To what extent does extant literature confirm or question the relevance of the project’s theory of change? Are there additional factors, that are not integrated into the theory of change but are proven to have an impact on cooperation between learning venues?

This research endeavour seeks to establish whether Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) can be a suitable approach to open the black box of (non)cooperation between learning venues in VET and to support cooperation more systematically. By conceptualising learning venues as activity systems, the tension points, misalignments and opportunities for action towards improved cooperation become visible. These aspects are relevant for VET stakeholders as they can make informed decisions about establishing or institutionalising cooperation. Preliminary findings indicate that CHAT can be used not only to analyse existing cooperation practices but also to inform the development of targeted interventions, shared tools, and coordination mechanisms that support more coherent and sustainable collaboration across learning venues.

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