Currently, doctoral education finds itself in a crucial situation, which requires intense scrutiny over its general purpose, its design and organizational structures and its contributions to the higher system in general (e.g. Cardoso, et al. 2021; Nature, 2024; Rathenau, 2024a).

The doctorate system, through the Bologna process (1992) considered as the third cycle in the bachelor, master, and PhD-system, is in transition along various dimensions. From a strictly academic issue, doctoral education has moved to a matter of international and national concern, which legitimises several political reforms and initiatives aimed at its regulation and reconfiguration (Cardoso, et al., 2022). We see a steady increase in numbers of PhD-candidates and graduations, and more variety of trajectories, such as the professional doctorate.

Because of the worldwide, prime importance of doctoral education, for our knowledge economy and as major contributor in the development of science and its (future) labour market, global debates on the best practices of delivering this education are ongoing (Yudkevich, Altbach, de Wit, 2021).

Whereas the PhD-system is increasingly studied, and publications concerning its various aspects are currently widely available, as well as information concerning facts, numbers and graduation rates (Rathenau 2024a, b, PNN, 2025) these generally focus on the individual level, whereas more profound discussions about how the system as a whole are lacking. It is my intention to provide a more fundamental basis and new structural impetus for these discussions.

Since the Berlin conference 2003 the PhD-trajectory has been acknowledged by the education Ministers of the Bologna countries. These ministers declared that “we need to ensure that the European higher education system acquires a world-wide degree of attraction equal to our extraordinary cultural and scientific traditions.”

More recently, internationalization, massification, the development of Artificial Intelligence (Bearman et al., 2022) and public management reform, encouraged by several initiatives such as the Bologna Process and the foundation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) had extensive impact on the doctorate system (e.g. Schäfer, 2021). EU agendas for higher education stimulated increased investment in research and development (European Commission, 2015; OECD, 2020, 2024), to ensure the future supply of research talent for the knowledge economy (Enders and de Weert, 2004; Neumann and Tan, 2011), which resulted in substantial rising numbers of PhD-candidates and graduates.

Main issues involve the misalignment with the labor market for professionals, with many PhD-graduates pursuing careers outside academia. Other issues involve structural inequities, for example considering gender, ethnicity and class disparities. Additional aspects involve the supervision and assessment of the PhDs trajectory.

Fresh, evidence-based insights are required to create an input for a novel, inclusive structuring of the doctoral system and post-PhD career perspectives that recognize and support diverse forms of knowledge and research outputs. Main subtopics involve the reconsideration and critical reflection of doctoral education, (post)PhD-careers and inequalities. How can we create a more sustainable system of doctoral education, inclusive and with a fit for the future labour market?

Bearman, M., Ryan, J. & Ajjawi, R. Discourses of artificial intelligence in higher education: a critical literature review. High Educ 86, 369–385 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00937-2 Cardoso, S., Santos, S., Diogo, S. et al. The transformation of doctoral education: a systematic literature review. High Educ 84, 885–908 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00805-5 Nature (2023) PhD training is no longer fit for purpose, it needs reform now, editorial, 18th January. Enders, J. (2004), Research training and careers in transition: A European perspective on the many faces of the Ph. D. Studies in Continuing Education, 26(3), 419–429. OECD (2020). The Precarity of Research Careers. http://www.oecd.org/sti/science-technology-innovation-outlook/research-precariat/ OECD (2024) Transformative Agenda for STI-policy. https://www.oecd.org/sti/inno/transformative-agenda-sti.htm PNN (2025) Promovendi Netwerk Nederland. Four years of contract, five+ years of work: factors hindering and supporting a timely PhD completion. 10.5281/zenodo.14946489 Rathenau Instituut (2024a). Een onzekere start – Startende onderzoekers over hun belemmeringen. Den Haag. Auteurs: Koens, L., L. Hessels, S. Vogelezang en A. Vennekens Rathenau (2024b) Schäfer, G. (2021) Spatial and social mobility of doctoral candidates in the context of Europeanisation and internationalisation in higher education, Dissertation im Fach Soziologie, Siegen, Deutschland. Yudkevich, M, P.G. Altbach & H. de Wit (2020, eds.) Trends and Issues in Doctoral Education A Global Perspective First Edition, Sage.