This paper begins from a basic yet fundamental question: how can the concepts of vocational excellence and inclusion in VET be meaningfully researched? Both concepts have gained substantial prominence in European VET policies over the past 25 years, yet the exploratory analysis underpinning this contribution demonstrates that neither is clearly or consistently defined. Instead, they are multifaceted, interpreted differently across countries and influenced by diverse theoretical perspectives and stakeholder positions. This conceptual ambiguity complicates any systematic analytical attempt - yet it also offers a unique opportunity to reflect on how research can capture evolving, diffuse and politically loaded concepts.

Building on this starting question, the paper presents and critically discusses a cross-country research approach used to investigate how excellence and inclusion appear in national VET policy documents from the past 25 years and to what extent these can be considered as contradictory or complimentary objectives (Cedefop, 2025). An exploratory analysis of academic and policy-related international research literature was conducted. It shows that the two concepts are sometimes understood narrowly – for example, focusing only on specific target groups or specific institutional dimensions – while broader interpretations view them as essential, mutually reinforcing components of high-quality VET systems. In such holistic understandings, excellence is linked to quality, diversity and innovation, while inclusion relates to equity, participation and ensuring that all learners can succeed (see also e.g. Mironov et al., 2024; Hazelkorn & Klemencic, 2022; Hornby, 2020).

The exploratory analysis resulted in the identification of aspects or attributes that are frequently associated with these concepts and that can be used as ‘signals’ for vocational excellence and/or inclusion when analysing national VET policy documents. To structure these signals, an analytical framework was developed drawing on a refined three-perspective model (socioeconomic/labour-market; epistemological/pedagogical; education system perspectives) that was initially designed to analyse conceptions of VET among different countries and changes in them over time (Cedefop, 2023). For the purposes of this study, it was adapted to focus on selected dimensions and aspects (‘signals’) relating specifically to excellence and inclusion. In addition, the concepts of vocational excellence and inclusion were linked to the ‘orders of justification’ which can be used to understand the different rationales and values that underpin educational practices, policies and stakeholder expectations (see e.g. Berner and Gonon, 2016; Imdorf & Leemann, 2023; Smeplass et al., 2024).

The paper presents this research not only for its empirical insights from the analysis of VET policy documents from 30 countries but also as a reflection on and illustration of the possibilities, challenges and methodological limitations of researching excellence and inclusion in VET. The contribution therefore moves beyond describing findings to critically reflect on what the approach chosen can – and cannot – capture when researching complex and evolving VET objectives across diverse national contexts.

The paper draws on a recently published study conducted by the authors (Cedefop, 2025). Its aim is to critically reflect on the methodology applied, as well as on the limitations and potentials of researching excellence and inclusion in comparative VET studies.

The findings show inclusion is referenced more frequently in the VET policy documents analysed, especially in legislation, while references to excellence have increased notably since around 2014. Over time, inclusion has broadened from a narrow focus on specific vulnerable groups to a wider understanding that emphasises VET for diverse learners and lifelong learning. Excellence-related policy documents tend to focus on high-quality provision, institutional modernisation and responsiveness to labour market needs, while inclusion-oriented documents highlight guidance, support, flexible pathways and removing barriers. Many policy documents address both objectives, but the relationship between them is not always explicit or coherent. Some countries treat excellence and inclusion as complementary; others separate them across different policy spheres. The emerging idea of ‘inclusive excellence’ appears in discourse (see e.g. Majumdar, 2023) but is not yet firmly embedded in national policy frameworks. From a methodological standpoint, the paper concludes that researching excellence and inclusion through document analysis is feasible and informative. The approach taken allows systematic comparison across countries, highlights temporal developments and identifies patterns of emphasis or neglect. It allows to gather informed perspectives on national VET priorities and trends, even though the limited selection of five documents per country may not have captured the full spectrum of policy shifts and reforms over the past 25 years. However, this approach is also constrained by conceptual ambiguity and the absence of shared definitions, variation in whether concepts are explicitly named or implicitly embedded in policy documents and differences in national policy traditions, which shape how excellence and inclusion are understood and promoted (combined or separated). Other challenges refer to the documents selected that vary in scope and legal status and to the limits of policy texts as evidence as many policy documents do not provide explicit information regarding their underlying justifications (i.e. the reasoning behind policy choices). The aim of the paper presentation is to discuss the concepts of inclusion and excellence in VET with research colleagues and to stimulate an exchange on research approaches, with a view to refining these concepts and addressing them more effectively in comparative studies.

The findings show inclusion is referenced more frequently in the VET policy documents analysed, especially in legislation, while references to excellence have increased notably since around 2014. Over time, inclusion has broadened from a narrow focus on specific vulnerable groups to a wider understanding that emphasises VET for diverse learners and lifelong learning. Excellence-related policy documents tend to focus on high-quality provision, institutional modernisation and responsiveness to labour-market needs, while inclusion-oriented documents highlight guidance, support, flexible pathways and removing barriers. Many policy documents address both objectives, but the relationship between them is not always explicit or coherent. Some countries treat excellence and inclusion as complementary; others separate them across different policy spheres. The emerging idea of ‘inclusive excellence’ appears in discourse (see e.g. Majumdar, 2023) but is not yet firmly embedded in national policy frameworks. From a methodological standpoint, the paper concludes that researching excellence and inclusion through document analysis is feasible and informative. The approach taken allows systematic comparison across countries, highlights temporal developments and identifies patterns of emphasis or neglect. It allows to gather informed perspectives on national VET priorities and trends, even though the limited selection of five documents per country may not have captured the full spectrum of policy shifts and reforms over the past 25 years. However, this approach is also constrained by conceptual ambiguity and the absence of shared definitions, variation in whether concepts are explicitly named or implicitly embedded in policy documents and differences in national policy traditions, which shape how excellence and inclusion are understood and promoted (combined or separated). Other challenges refer to the documents selected that vary in scope and legal status and to the limits of policy texts as evidence as many policy documents do not provide explicit information regarding their underlying justifications (i.e. the reasoning behind policy choices).

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