Contemporary European societies are confronted with multiple, overlapping crises that demand profound transformations. Technological and digital innovation, the pursuit of sustainable equilibria, climate change and shifting global geopolitical dynamics, demographic transformations — these phenomena interact with one another, generating challenging scenarios and new vulnerabilities. Such dynamics call existing institutions and organisational structures into question, prompting the search for new rules and unprecedented forms of balance.

In this “age of disorder”, education and training are frequently invoked as instruments capable of supporting individuals in navigating ongoing transformations, in a twofold sense: as a transformative tool that fosters the exploration and experimentation of new solutions; and as a means of strengthening resilience, helping individuals—particularly the most vulnerable—adapt to the changing contexts in which they must operate.

Attention to the most vulnerable groups, who are disproportionately affected by the negative consequences of current transformations, is one of the key motivations behind an ongoing study on training policies adopted by European countries to address the challenges facing contemporary societies. The study focuses on several European countries—France, Germany, England, Italy and Spain—and examines in depth their adult learning and training policies. The analytical lens adopted is that of inequalities and the role that training policies may play in:

• countering individual and social inequalities, particularly among low-skilled adults.
• reducing territorial disparities, understood in the various ways they manifest across the countries examined: disparities between macro-regions (North–South; East–West), between large urban agglomerations and rural areas, and between residential areas and disadvantaged neighbourhoods.
• addressing the challenge of the twin transition.
• supporting transitions in individuals’ professional and life pathways, including through the establishment of an individual right to continuous and lifelong learning.

 The findings emerging thus far highlight a significant commitment to adult learning policies across all countries, reflected in a wide range of projects and initiatives. These are increasingly characterised by the experimentation of approaches designed to engage, above all, the most vulnerable user groups. In the most advanced cases, the focus on vulnerable adults gives rise to initiatives grounded in cooperative and multidimensional approaches, involving networks of public and private actors entrusted with supporting individuals in a holistic manner. This support is provided through outreach activities and the provision of integrated services—training, employment guidance, and socio‑health interventions—that can transform diverse individual difficulties (economic, health-related, care responsibilities, motivational issues, etc.) into opportunities for re-entry into the labour market. Relevant examples of such approaches can be found in nearly all the countries analysed, albeit with national specificities.

The study forms part of a broader, long‑standing comparative analysis of European VET systems, which over the years has examined different VET sectors. A distinctive feature of this research strand is its focus on a selected group of countries which, although belonging to different skills formation regimes (Busemeyer and Trampusch, 2012), share certain elements of complexity. These include the multi‑layered nature of their decision‑making structures and the development of VET systems that display original characteristics in their core features. A previous study examined the same countries from the perspective of VET system architecture, with particular attention to the adult learning sector, and analysed their trajectories of change over the past two decades. The current study revisits these VET systems by concentrating on specific policy objectives, placing particular emphasis on the issue of inequalities. The ongoing research has been conducted through an extensive documentary analysis of the relevant literature and policy documents, complemented by a set of interviews with key witnesses in each country. These witnesses were selected among representatives of institutional actors, social partners, and VET experts from academia as well as from within the VET systems themselves.

The findings point to a renewed commitment to promoting adult learning, reflected in a growing number of projects and initiatives implemented across the various countries. This trend appears to have intensified in recent years, suggesting that adult learning has gained greater prominence on political agendas. Comparative analysis, however, must contend with the diversity of systemic architectures and actors involved, as well as with strong path‑dependency that shape long‑term patterns of change. Despite the challenges of comparing highly differentiated contexts, the policy analysis reveals several critical issues common to all countries, as consistently highlighted by the experts interviewed. First and foremost, the main concern raised relates to the absence of a long‑term strategic vision underpinning adult learning policies. This gap results in a proliferation of fragmented interventions, often implemented through temporary projects or uncoordinated local initiatives. The lack of strategic vision is compounded by a funding landscape dominated by short‑term, conjunctural measures rather than structural investment, leading to discontinuities that undermine the stability and continuity of services. More broadly, all interviewees point to the absence of effective governance mechanisms capable of supporting the development of adequate adult learning policies. In the case of disadvantaged groups, the need to place individuals with their full range of needs at the core of policy action would require expanding governance arrangements to include a wider variety of stakeholders and establishing coordinated pathways across social, health and training policies. Similarly episodic and fragmented is the evaluation of adult learning policies, which has yet to become a tool for improving performance, strengthening accountability, and ensuring coherence across interventions. This is particularly problematic given that the contribution of adult learning policies to reduce inequalities can only be fully realised within a holistic approach that integrates measures adopted across different policy domains into a unified and shared strategic framework.

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