Recently, in several countries, notably the UK and Australia, a moral panic has broken out after some studies showed that girls were now outperforming boys in education (Smith, 2003). “The boys’ problem” was born (Francis & Skelton, 2005).

     The topic of differences between boys and girls is not a new one. The amount of attention and perspective have undergone changes, however, and vary according to the socio-political and economic context of the countries (Arnot & Miles, 2005). And whether boys indeed have a problem and score in all phases and domains below girls is not clear. In discussions opinions are not always substantiated with empirical evidence and information on possible differences often is only available in a very fragmented way. Because of this the risk of overestimating differences and unjustified generalizations is not imaginary. Some researchers therefore are of the opinion that the problem is being approached far too indiscriminately (Van Langen & Driessen, 2006). According to them the conclusion should be that with regard to some aspects boys outperform girls while with regard to other aspects girls do better.

     Another point of discussion is whether differences have increased or not. According to Gillborn & Mirza (2000) “the gender gap” has increased; Gorard, Rees & Salisbury (1999) do not share this opinion, however, and wonder if boys did indeed achieve better than girls during the last couple of decades Other authors relativize the gender differences and point to the fact that all students have progressed, boys as well as girls. Another relevant question is whether gender specific differences in educational careers are unique for certain countries or an universal phenomenon.

     To relativize possible gender differences some scholars draw attention to the influence of two other factors that traditionally play an important role in the explanation of educational disadvantage, viz. social milieu and ethnicity (Dekkers, Bosker & Driessen, 2000). Epstein, Elwood, Hey & Maw (1998) argue that differences in achievement according to gender are much smaller than those according to milieu and ethnicity. From this perspective two forms of educational disadvantage are discerned. Vertical educational inequalitypoints to unequal chances of attaining a high educational level. Horizontal educational inequality concerns differences in the distribution over types of education within the same level that lead to unequal chances of further education and employment.

This paper presents the results of an internationally comparative study into differences between boys and girls in elementary and secondary education. The general aim was to get a better empirical understanding of the educational position of boys as compared to that of girls. The following more specific questions stand central:

·      To what degree does the position of boys in primary and secondary education differ from that of girls?

·      Have any differences between boys and girls increased during the last decades?

·      What explanations have been put forward to explain gender differences in education?

·      What intervention strategies have been proposed to combat gender differences?

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