The experience of inclusion in schools often makes headline news in both the popular and academic press. Usually, the stories which follow concentrate on the negative experiences of teachers in mainstream schools and are usually centred around the argument of having to spend an inordinate amount of time attending to pupils with learning or behavioural difficulties to the detriment of the others. Moreover, recent guidelines and research have also tended to focus on the experiences of mainstream schools (Munn et al. 2004, SEED 2004). The effect of this publicity is to set up a view of inclusion that is unidirectional, that inclusion is only about what is happening in our mainstream primary and secondary schools. A unidirectional expectation serves to reinforce ideas of normalization and the assumption that mainstream is the benchmark for the education of all children and young people. However, the process of inclusion does not simply impact on mainstream schools and what is significant, but less obviously reported, is the effect on special schools. The impact of the inclusion agenda on special schools, however, has exercised leading academics. For example, Ainscow (2000) sets out the three dimensions of improving teaching, supporting learning and developing practice as a template for the development of inclusive schooling. Within this framework, he recognises a particular role for special education. This paper reports on the impact of the presumption of mainstreaming on special schools in Scotland. It sets out the context for the study, reports on responses from teachers and school managers and finally, considers the implications for the future role of special schools and the development of the 'specialness' of special education. In November 2003, the Scottish Executive Education Department (SEED) commissioned the Scottish Council for Research in Education Centre at the University of Glasgow to evaluate the impact of Section 15 of the Standards in Scotland's Schools etc Act 2000. This legislation came into effect in August 2003, and introduced what is now commonly referred to as the 'presumption of mainstreaming' in relation to pupils with special educational needs (SEN). One of the changes enshrined in the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act is the adoption of the term 'additional support needs', which is considerably wider in scope than its predecessor. This change in nomenclature signals a general recognition amongst policy-makers that all children or young people may have additional support needs at some stage in their school career. In sum, the political consensus is that it is not necessarily exceptional to experience a need for additional support at some point in a pupil's school career - although in some cases these support needs can be exceptional. The evaluation took place between January 2004 and August 2005. The main aims of the research were to examine the response of education authorities throughout Scotland to Section 15, and to assess its impact on all those involved - pupils, parents and teachers, as well as other professionals and agents who support pupils with SEN. The research comprised four main strands, one of which was the presumption of mainstreaming on special schools, and the specific objectives of the research included an exploration of the changing role of special schools, and the changing demands on staff in the special education.The survey of free-standing special schools was designed to ensure that we were able to meet one of the key objectives of the project: to explore the impact of the presumption of mainstreaming on the special school sector. On the basis of information provided by the Scottish Executive, questionnaires were sent to the headteachers of 183 establishments. We received completed responses from 119 schools. This represents a response rate of 65 per cent - a clear indication of the level of interest and engagement from the special school sector. Quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Wherever possible, in both the quantitative and qualitative data links were made with the data from the survey of local authorities. However, the identity of individual schools was not been revealed in the interests of confidentiality. For this reason, the authorities in which the schools are located was also not identified. The evidence presented in this paper suggests that whilst there may be widespread support for specialist provision within a policy climate of inclusion, it is important to recognise that the sector has undergone significant changes in the last few years. It is also the case that not all of these changes are due to the impact of mainstreaming. There are other developments in the system which have had a considerable impact on the sector. The evidence also suggests that the impact of the introduction of the presumption of mainstreaming on the special school constituency remains difficult to predict.Amongst the special school respondents, there was an almost equal division of opinion between those who considered that the presumption of mainstreaming has resulted in a positive experience for learners and teachers, and those who saw it as a threat to what is 'special' about special schools and consequently wished to retain specialist provision. It is clear that, similar to the impact of inclusion on mainstream schools, one of the biggest challenges for the sector has been the increase in the range and complexity of need amongst the special school population. This has had ramifications for staffing and skill mix, and for the climate for teaching and learning within the sector.The findings reported suggest that the role of special schools is changing, and that this is in part due to the presumption of mainstreaming. It also appears that at a time when special schools are becoming less 'specialised' in that they are now required to provide for an increasingly diverse and complex range of needs, they are increasingly being asked to become more 'special' in that the increased range of needs requires them to develop new skills and approaches. In addition, they are being asked to take on some of the characteristics of mainstream schools in terms of curriculum and formal qualifications.There is also a danger that there is increasing polarisation between mainstream schools and their specialist counterparts. This polarisation may threaten the progressive re-negotiation of the place for special schools within the broader objective of educational inclusion. Further consideration needs to be given to the role of specialist provision within a policy climate of inclusion. The issue of 'critical mass' is central to our understanding of successful inclusion. This applies equally to the experience of individual children with special educational needs who may benefit from having two peer groups. It also applies to the development and maintenance of professional expertise in the following key areas: communication and interaction; cognition and learning; social, emotional and behavioural difficulties; and sensory and/or physical needs. It seems likely that staff with specialist expertise in these areas will play a vital role in ensuring the ultimate success of the inclusion policy. There is clearly a role for special schools as providers of advice, support and training to staff in mainstream schools who are facing new challenges in meeting the needs of increasingly diverse school populations.Ainscow, M. (2000) 'The next step for special education: Supporting the development of inclusive practices'. British Journal of Special Education, 27(2): 76-80. Audit Scotland (May 2003) Moving to Mainstream. 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