Exploring Inter-linguistic Transfer Of Metaphorical Skills: Consequences for Foreign Language Education

Author(s):

Luis S. Villacañas de Castro(presenting / submitting)

Conference:

ECER 2014

Network:

31. LEd – Network on Language and Education

Format:

Paper

Session Information

31 SES 09, First, Second and Foreign Language Acquisition - Transfer and Reading

Paper Session

Time:

2014-09-04

11:00-12:30

Room:

B006 Anfiteatro

Chair:

Joana da Silveira Duarte

Contribution

The linguistic interdependence hypothesis (LIH) and the linguistic threshold hypothesis (LTH) have long provided a fruitful framework for research in second and foreign language learning, yet only recently have they started to guide research in second and foreign language teaching (Cummins, 2005; Cummins, 2008; Cummins, 2012; Cummins, Bismilla, Chow, Cohen, Giampapa, & Leoni, 2005; He, 2011; Creese & Blackledge, 2010). Dominant among the different formulations of these two hypotheses has been Jim Cummins’ (1979) rendition. Unlike other authors, Cummins (1979a) conceives of both constructs only in relation to different kinds of CUP or Common Underlying Proficiencies which manifest themselves in any given language used by a student. He identifies three types of proficiencies: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS), and Discrete Language Skills (Cummins, 2003; Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007). In addition, and unlike other authors, Cummins’ understanding of the LIH and the LTH states that the main determinant for relevant language transfer to take place lies on the pedagogical dimension embraced by the teacher, not on the students’ language level or on the time exposure to any of the languages implied. The latter is the founding principle of the time-task or linguistic mismatch hypotheses (Cummins, 2001, p. 177) . Cummins’ perspective is thus qualitative and pedagogical instead of quantitative. Finally, the pedagogical principles which would encourage language transfer are in consonance with the main tenets of socio-constructivist and transformative pedagogies. They should be conceived along a continuum (- / +), the more positive versions of which would assure more language transfer:

‘The extent to which students’ language and cultural background are affirmed and promoted within the school […];
The extent to which culturally diverse communities are encouraged to participate as partners in their children’s education […];
The extent to which instruction promotes intrinsic motivation on the part of the students to use language actively in order to generate their own knowledge, create literature and art, and act on social realities that affect their lives […];
The extent to which professionals involved in assessment become advocates for students […].’ (Cummins, 2000, p. 47)

Following suit from Cummins’ framework, this research was carried out with the aim of determining whether, apart from the CUPs identified by Cummins (BICS, CALP, and discrete language skills), researchers could also infer the existence of an underlying metaphorical proficiency, precisely by testing whether the ability to create metaphors transferred from one language to another, provided that Cummins’ pedagogical provisos were respected; and, if so, whether there was a significant language threshold which conditioned this transfer. The goal was thus to find out the impact (if any) of both the LIH and the LTH on the ability to create metaphors.

Method

A poetry workshop was organized during the second semester of the 2012-13 academic year. It ranged from 25 February 2013 to 13 March 2013, for a total of 5 lessons. It was developed in the context of a university module in “English as a Foreign Language” with 48 Spanish students at their 3rd year of their Degree in Primary Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. They studied in the Faculty of Education of the Universitat de València (Spain). Their ages ranged principally between 21-23 (76, 6 %). All of them were native Catalan or Spanish speakers but had certified a B2 level or higher (according to the EFCR) in EFL through a mock exam which took after the First (FCE). Their level varied a lot, however, as well as the enjoyment and pleasure which they obtained from reading or writing literature in their first or foreign languages, and thus from exercising their metaphorical skills. The design of the workshop attempted to translate Cummins’ pedagogical principles of socio-constructivist and transformative inspiration into the selected FL setting. It did so especially in the way it discussed literary texts and texts of pedagogical knowledge. For instance, the teacher-researcher found inspiration in Nikki Grimes’ (2002) novel Bronx Masquerade, which the participants had started reading; also, in workshops by Elizabeth Schlessman (2012) and Linda Christensen (2000). Overall the workshop consisted of group discussions, brainstorming, reading and writing activities as well as ‘read-arounds’ among the participants, and a voluntary rehearsal in front of other students of the Faculty. Interviews were also conducted months after the research had ended, during the month of October 2013, at the teacher-researcher’s office. They were in Spanish and lasted between 15-55 minutes. They were informal but guided, since they orbited around a series of pre-written questions which intended to know whether the act of writing these poems was in any way similar to any previous metaphorical form of expression in their native languages, and to what extent; or vice versa, whether this poetry workshop had in any way encouraged them to find more (or less) joy in expressing themselves metaphorically, in English or their native language. Only 8 students ended up volunteering to these interviews, but luckily enough they varied a lot in terms of their English level and their prior degree of interest in reading or writing metaphorical language.

Expected Outcomes

The researcher identified the underlying presence of a metaphorical proficiency. The pedagogical approach embraced by the teacher-researcher played a more decisive role in enabling language transfer of metaphorical skills than FL level, since the former was noticeable in all the participants whose poems and interviews were analyzed, disregarding of their FL level. The following evidence was found. • Participants who had had previous experience with writing metaphorically in their native language saw this workshop as a continuation of those previous experiences, and students who had never written creatively before felt that this workshop had changed their own perspective on their poetic and metaphoric abilities. None of them had suddenly started to indulge in aesthetic metaphorical language (not even in their native language), but they were confident of being able to do so. • Three participants mentioned that, irrespective of the language used, metaphors in their poems had originally cropped up as “images” in their minds, which they struggled to render into English in this case. The images retained their metaphoric quality independently of the language used to objectify them. Thus metaphoric skills conform to what Cummins attributed to common underlying proficiencies and their corresponding forms of language transfer, and FL level had no impact on this transfer since no level threshold was required to activate it. • The participants, themselves teachers-to-be, became aware of the potential advantages implicit in incorporating creative tasks with metaphorical language in language education. The desire to put images into words could act as an engine driving foreign language learning forward. In their effort to put images into words, students would explore, work and improve their command of the new language. Tasks involving the use of metaphorical language in a FL could therefore be applied to all kinds of students, regardless of age or FL level.

References

Christensen, L. (2000). The read-around: Raising writers. In L. Christensen, Reading, writing and rising up. Teaching about justice and the power of the written word (pp. 14-17). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools. Creese, A., & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? Modern Language Journal, 94 (1), 103-115. Cummins, J. (2003). BICS and CALP. In M. Byram (Ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning (pp. 76-78). London/New York: Routledge. Cummins, J. (1979a). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19 , 121-129. Cummins, J. (2001). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. In J. Cummins, C. Baker, & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 175-194). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49 , 221-251. Cummins, J. (2005). Teaching for cross-language transfer in dual language education. Retrieved 30-01-2014, from http://www.achievementseminars.com/seminar_series_2005_2006/readings/tesol.turkey.pdf Cummins, J. (2008). Teaching for transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumptions in bilingual education. In J. Cummins (Ed.), Encyclopeadia of language and education (pp. 65-75). Boston: Springer Science+Business Media. Cummins, J. (2012). The intersection of cognitive and sociological factors in the development of reading comprehension among immigrant students. Reading and Writing, 25 , 1973-1990. Cummins, J., Bismilla, V., Chow, P., Cohen, S., Giampapa, F., & Leoni, L. E. (2005). Affirming identity in multilingual classrooms. Educational Leadership, 63 (1), 38-43. Cummins, J., Brown, K., & Sayers, D. (2007). Literacy, technology and diversity. Teaching for success in changing times. Boston: Pearsons. Grimes, N. (2002). Bronx Masquerade. New York: Dial Books. He, A. E. (2011). Possibility of cross-lingual transfer: A comparative study of Chinese and English (L2) lessons. The Modern Language Journal, 95 , 64-80 Schlessman, E. (2012). Aquí y allá. Exploring our lives through poetry—here and there. In L. Christensen; M. Hansen, B. Peterson, E. Schlessman & D. Watson (Eds.), Rethinking Elementary Education (pp. 113-120). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools.

Author Information

Luis S. Villacañas de Castro (presenting / submitting)

Universitat de València

Language and Literature Education

València

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